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Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 33(2), 503–568. Chirikba, Viacheslav (2008): The Georgian–Abkhazian Conflict: In Search of Ways Out. Abkhaz World, 15 October 2008. Online: https://abkhazworld.com/aw/conflict/731-the-georgianabkhazian-conflict-chirikba Chirikba, Viacheslav (2009): The International Legal Status of the Republic of Abkhazia in the Light of International Law. Istanbul: Bilgi University. CIS (1994): Декларация о соблюдении суверенитета, территориальной целостности и неприкосновенности границ государств-участников Содружества Независимых Государств [Declaration on Respect for Sovereignty, Territorial Integrity and Inviolability of Borders of the Member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States]. 15 April 1994. Online: https://docs.cntd.ru/document/1901148 Cohen, Jonathan ed. (1999): The Georgia–Abkhazia Peace Process. Accord Series Number 7. London: Conciliation Resources. Constitution of the Republic of Abkhazia. April 2014. 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JAM News (2021): Several Countries Urged Russia to Withdraw Recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. JAM News, 06 August 2021. Online: https://jam-news.net/seven-states-urge-russia-towithdraw-recognition-of-abkhazia-and-south-ossetia/ Knop, Karen (2002): Diversity and Self-determination in International Law. Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law, Series Number 20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kukolevskiy, Alexander (2010): $644 млрд — цена признания Абхазии и Южной Осетии [$644 Billion Is the Price of Recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia]. Kommersant, 18 January 2010. Online: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1305441 Lakoba, Stanislav (2001): Abkhazia de facto or de jure? Sapporo: Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University. Law on the Procedure for Resolving Issues Related to the Withdrawal of the Union Republic from the USSR, 1990. 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Online: https://ria.ru/20120826/729874673.html Raič, David (2002): Statehood and the Law of Self-Determination. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Ryngaert, Cedric – Griffioen, Christine (2009): The Relevance of the Right to Self-determination in the Kosovo Matter: In Partial Response to the Agora Papers. Chinese Journal of International Law, 8(3), 573–587. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/chinesejil/jmp021 Souleimanov, Emil A. – Abrahamyan, Eduard – Aliyev, Huseyn (2018): Unrecognized States as a Means of Coercive Diplomacy? Assessing the Role of Abkhazia and South Ossetia in Russia’s Foreign Policy in the South Caucasus. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 18(1), 73–86. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2017.1390830 The USSR Central Referendum Commission (1991): Сообщение Центральной комиссии референдума СССР Об итогах референдума СССР, состоявшегося 17 марта 1991 года [Report on the Results of the USSR Referendum Held on 17 March 1991]. Online: https://www.gorby.ru/userfiles/file/referendum_rezultat.pdf Tran, Mark (2008): Russia Defies West by Recognising Georgian Rebel Regions. The Guardian, 26 August 2008. Online: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/aug/26/russia.georgia1 United Nations (1996): Deputy Special Envoy for Georgia Opens Human Rights Office in Sukhumi, Abkhazia, Georgia. 10 December 1996. Online: https://www.un.org/press/en/1996/19961210.sgsm6125.html United Nations (2006): UNOMIG Mandate. Online: https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unomig/mandate.html Van den Driest, Simone F. (2013): Remedial Secession. A Right to External Self-Determination as a Remedy to Serious Injustices. Antwerpen: Intersentia. Vidmar, Jure (2021): International Legal Responses to Kosovo’s Declaration of Independence. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 42(3), 779–851. Walter, Christian – von Ungern-Sternberg, Antje – Abushov, Kavus (2014): Self-Determination and Secession in International Law. 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After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Georgian–Abkhazian war, Abkhazia proclaimed its independence; however, at that time none of the other states recognised its independence. Following the so-called Russo– Georgian war, Abkhazia was recognised by Russia and soon after by some other states. How did Abkhazians live during the period when the territory was not recognised internationally and how did life change after gaining some recognition? The aim of this article is to answer these questions, to trace changes after international recognition of Abkhazia and to consider future prospects for wider global recognition. The article also analyses Russian–Georgian relations that had a direct impact on Abkhazia. The article consists of six parts, which analyse the reasoning behind Abkhazian justifications for independence, the right to self-determination, analyse in detail the period of time when Abkhazia existed as an unrecognised and isolated state, and also consider the changes that occurred after Abkhazia was recognised by several countries. This paper analyses the legal and geopolitical aspects behind recognition of internationally disputed territories. The significant role of international organisations in supporting peace in the region is discussed, as well as humanitarian aid to Abkhazia during its isolation.

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This paper aims to highlight why the logic of regionalisation can be applied in minority studies. Overall, the introduction of a regionalised structure benefits minority groups in a country, simply because through decentralisation their voices can be better heard. Two components constitute regionalisation: the strengthening of regional identities within the population, and the political will of the central state to enhance effectivity in public administration. Regionalisation is a concept based on the rediscovery of the necessity of territorial management which is slowly returning to public administration structures all over Europe, but especially in Spain, Italy and France. These three countries are represented in this paper as examples of countries where the status of minorities can be examined through the analysis of the regionalisation process introduced there.

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Ambedkar, Babasaheb (2014d): Hindus and Want of Public Conscience. In Moon, Vasant (ed.): Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches. Vol. 5. New Delhi: Dr. Ambedkar Foundation. 89–93. Ambedkar, Babasaheb R. (2014e): Why Lawlessness is Lawful? In Moon, Vasant (ed.): Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches. Vol. 5. New Delhi: Dr. Ambedkar Foundation. 62–74. Ando, Nisuke (2008): General Comments/Recommendations. Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/e1730 Babar, Aniruddha V. (2016): International Human Rights Law and the Menace of Atrocities on Dalit Communities in India. Contemporary Voice of Dalit, 8(2), 111–123. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X16631051 Baxi, Upendra (2008): The Future of Human Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195690439.001.0001 Bob, Clifford (2007): “Dalit Rights Are Human Rights”: Caste Discrimination, International Activism, and the Construction of a New Human Rights Issue. Human Rights Quarterly, 29(1), 167–193. Online: https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2007.0001 Çalı, Başak (2013): The Legitimacy of International Interpretive Authorities for Human Rights Treaties: An Indirect-Instrumentalist Defence. In Føllesdal, Andreas – Ulfstein, Geir – Schaffer, Johan K. (eds.): The Legitimacy of International Human Rights Regimes. Legal, Political and Philosophical Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139540827.006 Dror, Yehezkel (1959): Law and Social Change. Tulane Law Review, 33(4), 787–802. Eisenman, William J. (2003): Eliminating Discriminatory Traditions against Dalits: The Local Need for International Capacity-Building of the Indian Criminal Justice System. Emory International Law Review, 17, 133–171. Galanter, Marc (1969): Untouchability and the Law. Economic and Political Weekly, 4(1–2), 131–171. Galanter, Marc (1993): Law and Society in Modern India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Herdegen, Matthias (2020): Interpretation in International Law. Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/e723 Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig (2010): Introduction: Genealogies of Human Rights. In Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig (ed.): Human Rights in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1–28. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511921667.001 IDSN (2022): Compilation of UN References to Caste Discrimination. Online: https://idsn.org/un-2/compilation-of-un-references-to-caste-discrimination/ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2005): Dr. Ambedkar and Untouchability: Fighting the Indian Caste System. New York: Columbia University Press. 34–35. Keane, David (2007): Caste-based Discrimination in International Human Rights Law. Aldershot: Ashgate. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315570945 Keane, David – Waughray, Annapurna (2017): CERD and Caste-based Discrimination. In Keane, David – Waughray, Annapurna (eds.): Fifty Years of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. A Living Instrument. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 121–149. Online: https://doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781784993047.001.0001 Lennox, Corinne (s. a.): Dalits and Norm Entrepreneurship on Caste-Based Discrimination. Online: http://idsn.org/wp-content/uploads/user_folder/pdf/New_files/Other_documents/IDSN_summary_paper_Dalit_international_mobilisation_-_Corinne_Lennox.pdf Mechlem, Kerstin (2009): Treaty Bodies and the Interpretation of Human Rights. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 42, 905–947. Mégret, Frédéric (2012): Where Does the Critique of International Human Rights Stand? An Exploration in 18 Vignettes. Beneyto, José María – Kennedy, David (eds.): New Approaches to International Law. The European and the American Experiences. The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press. 3–40. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-879-8 Narula, Smita (2008): Equal by Law, Unequal by Caste: The Untouchable Condition in Critical Race Perspective. Wisconsin International Law Journal, 26(2), 255–344. O’Connell, Paul (2018): Human Rights: Contesting the Displacement Thesis. Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, 69(1), 19–35. Online: https://doi.org/10.53386/nilq.v69i1.76 Orakhelashvili, Alexander (2008): The Interpretation of Acts and Rules in Public International Law. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546220.001.0001 Rosenberg, Gerald (2008): Constrains, Conditions, and the Courts. In The Hollow Hope. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 72–106. Thorat, Sukhadeo (2002): Hindu Social Order and Human Rights of Dalits. Online: https://www.combatlaw.org/information.php?article-id=109&issue-id=4 Thorat, Sukhadeo – Umakant eds. (2004): Caste Race and Discrimination. Discourses in International Context. Jaipur – New Delhi: Rawat. Waughray, Annapurna (2009): India and the Paradox of Caste Discrimination. European Yearbook of Minority Issues, 8(1), 413–452. Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/22116117-90001679 Waughray, Annapurna (2010): Caste Discrimination and Minority Rights: The Case of India’s Dalits. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 17, 327–353. Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/157181110X495926 Waughray, Annapurna (2016): Capturing Caste in Law. The Legal Regulation of Caste Discrimination. London: Routledge. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315750934 Official documents UNCEDAW (2010): General Recommendation 28. In The Core Obligations of States Parties under Article 2 of the CEDAW. UN Doc. CEDAW/C/GC/28, 4. UNCEDAW (2014): Concluding Observation – India. CEDAW/C/IND/CO/4-5. UNCERD (1996a): State party’s report. CERD/C/299/Add.3. UNCERD (1996b): State party’s report. UN Doc CERD/C/149/Add.11. UNCERD (1996c): Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. CERD/C/304/Add.13. UNCERD (2000): General Recommendation 27. UN Doc. A/55/18. UNCERD (2002a): Thematic Discussion on Discrimination based on Descent. CERD/C/SR.1531. UNCERD (2002b): General Recommendation 29 on Article 1, Paragraph 1, of the Convention (Descent). UN Doc HRI/GEN/1/Rev.1 GR 12 (ICERD). UNCESCR (2008): Concluding Observations – India. UN Doc E/C.12/IND/CO/5. UNCHR (2007): Report of the former Special Rapporteur on the right to food Jean Ziegler. UN Doc A/HRC/4/30. UNCHR (2009): Report of the Independent Expert on minority issues: Recommendations of the Forum on Minority Issues. UN Doc. A/HRC/10/11/Add.1. UNCHR (2012): Follow up report of the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, Christof Heyns on his mission to India. UN Doc A/HRC/29/37/Add.3. UNCHR (2015): Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to food. UN Doc. A/HRC/31/51. UNCHR (2016): Report of the Special Rapporteur on Minority Issues: Minorities and discrimination based on caste and analogous systems of inherited status. A/HRC/31/56. UNCRC (2014): Concluding Observations – India. UN Doc. CRC/C/IND/CO/3-4. UNHRC (1997): Concluding Observations – India. UN Doc. CCPR/C/79/Add.81. UNHRC (2009): Draft Principles and Guidelines for the Effective Elimination of Discrimination Based on Work and Descent. A/HRC/11/CRP.3. UNHRC, CCPR/C/78/D/829/1998. UN Sub-Commission (2000): Discrimination based on work and descent Sub-Commission on Human Rights resolution 2000/4. UN Doc E/CN.4/SUB.2/RES/2000/4. UN Sub-Commission (2003): Asbjorn Eide and Yozo Yokota, expanded working paper. UN Doc. E/." 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This paper critically evaluates all the developments that lead to the making of caste discrimination an issue in international human rights law (IHRL) – both as racial discrimination and as an issue of the minority rights regime. It explores the reasons why such developments and the politics of it have proven to be insufficient in cause and totality in addressing the rampant abuses of the human rights of Dalits. While focusing on the obvious limitations of the minority rights regime in including Dalits as a minority, it weighs the limitations and the potential of the existing IHRL corpus in addressing caste discrimination. The paper will first outline the genealogy of caste discrimination in IHRL, which will provide a descriptive account of all the developments. I identify the treatment of caste in terms of a “violating norm” and as a “violation sub-category”. Then the paper seeks to engage with the theory on the limitations and critiques of IHRL, to argue that there are theoretical and legal-doctrinal fault lines in the conception of caste discrimination as a sub-set of descent-based racial discrimination both normatively and interpretatively. To support this argument the paper explores reasons for the failure of IHRL in critical legal thought – which outline the triumph of cultural and social pressures in the society over the language of IHRL. Following this, a novel attempt is made to develop the concept of “cultures of oppression” as a central theme in imagining a “Dalit critique of IHRL” which in my opinion is not only a normative contribution to the critical discourses in reimagining IHRL which is more responsive to the problems of Dalits, but also provides a new outlook for human rights movements to combat caste discrimination.

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The Balkans can be described as a laboratory of modernity, especially when it comes to the form of multicultural life in the communities. The modern nation states that formed from the dissolution of Yugoslavia in the 1990s were faced on the one hand with a “need” to establish a state for the majority dominant ethnic group, and on the other hand to reconcile the multicultural reality of their societies and accommodate for the rights of minorities. This paper will focus on the constitutional and legal implications that followed the signing of the Ohrid Framework Agreement (OFA). It will also give an overview of the contents of the OFA and subsequent legislation juxtaposing it to international standards prescribed by documents such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of the Council of Europe. In the context of this legal analysis, the paper will examine the developing political environment through analysing certain dynamics in the political system focusing on parliament and political parties. It will also follow the discourse and popular support of the agreement and its effects on the internal and external stability of North Macedonia.

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object(Publication)#110 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(30) { ["id"]=> int(6899) ["accessStatus"]=> int(0) ["datePublished"]=> string(10) "2023-03-31" ["lastModified"]=> string(19) "2023-04-14 11:28:50" ["primaryContactId"]=> int(8531) ["sectionId"]=> int(14) ["seq"]=> int(5) ["submissionId"]=> int(6775) ["status"]=> int(3) ["version"]=> int(1) ["categoryIds"]=> array(0) { } ["citationsRaw"]=> string(3200) "Blahó, András – Prandler, Árpád (2005): Nemzetközi szervezetek és intézmények. Budapest: Aula Kiadó. Böttcher, Hans V. (1997): Die Freie Stadt Danzig. Wege und Umwege in die europäische Zukunft. Historischer Rückblick, staats-und völkerrechtliche Fragen. Bonn: Kulturstiftung der deutschen Vertriebenen. Davies, Norman (2006): Lengyelország története. Budapest: Osiris. Egedy, Gergely (2007): Gondolatok a nemzetről. A politikai és kulturális megközelítés. Online: https://kisebbsegkutato.tk.hu/uploads/files/archive/197.pdf Grotius (1933): A négyhatalmi szerződés. Grotius, 15 July 1933. Online: https://www.grotius.hu/publ/displ.asp?id=HNHDDJ Grotius (2013): Versailles-ibékeszerződés (1919. 06. 28.). Grotius, 06 February 2013. Online: https://www.grotius.hu/doc/pub/UPKVVT/2013-02-06_a-versailles-i-bekeszerzodes.pdf Halász, Iván (2005): Nemzetközi igazgatás a válságövezetben – adalékok a nemzetközi igazgatás történetéhez és jelenlegi dilemmáihoz. Külügyi Szemle, 4(1–2), 248–269. Halász, Iván (2015): A nemzetközi felügyelet alatt élő lengyel városállamok az 1939 előtti Európában: Krakkó és Danzig szabad városok. Történelmi Szemle, 57(1), 131–153. History Learning Site (s. a.): Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Online: https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/woodrow_wilson1.htm Lemo (2015): Die Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei. Online: https://www.dhm.de/lemo/kapitel/weimarer-republik/innenpolitik/nsdap.html Loew, Peter O. (2003): Danzig und seine Vergangenheit 1793–1997. Die Geschichtskultur einer Stadt zwischen Deutschland und Polen. Osnabrück: Fibre. Loew, Peter O. (2013): Gdańsk. Biografia miasta. Gdańsk: Instytut Kultury Miejskiej. Translation with the contribution of Iván Halász. Németh, István (2003): Németország története. Budapest: Aula Kiadó. Németh, István (2013): Németország a weimari köztársaság időszakában (1919–1933). Online: https://www.grotius.hu/doc/pub/WNAWSU/2013-01-29_nemeth_istvan_grotius-e-konyvtar-57.pdf Pangea (2014): Érisz almája Poroszországban: Danzig Szabadállam. Pangea, 02 November 2014. Online: http://pangea.hu/2014/11/02/danzig Ruhnau, Rüdiger (1988): Die Freie Stadt Danzig 1919–1939. Berg am See: Kurt Vowinckel Verlag KG. Szalayné Sándor, Erzsébet (2003): A kisebbségvédelem nemzetközi jogi intézményrendszere a 20. században. Budapest: Gondolat – MTA Kisebbségkutató Intézet. Online: http://mek.oszk.hu/06900/06949/06949.pdf Archive sources Hungarian National Archives (1933): The new League of Nations High Commissioner for Danzig: Sean Lester. National Archives, Section K 63, No. 51/pol.- Vol. 1933. Hungarian National Archives (1936a): Danzig. National Archives, Section K 63, No. 123/pol.-Vol. 1936. Hungarian National Archives (1936b): Polish Intermediation between the League of Nations and Danzig. National Archives, Section K 63, No. 277/pol.- Vol. 1936. Hungarian National Archives (1936c): The Danzig Issue in front of the May Meeting of the Council. Extension of the Mandate of Sean Lester High Commissioner. National Archives, Section K 63, No. 20/pol.- Vol. 1936." ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2023) ["issueId"]=> int(514) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "77-92" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2023.1.5" ["abstract"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(746) "

The Free City of Danzig was one of the peculiar European regions in the period between the two World Wars under the administration of the League of Nations. This was the present-day area of the city of Gdańsk and its vicinity. Danzig had a special legal status. This study attempts to capture one of the specific aspects of this complex issue – the relationship between local administration and the local Poles, and the Polish state agencies. Through the presentation and analysis of the situation of this “city” of special status, the reader may obtain an insight into the procedures of one of the first transitory crisis management operations of the international community and into the life of the minority population.

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(2020): Strengthening Legal Protection against Discrimination by Algorithms and Artificial Intelligence. The International Journal of Human Rights, 24(10), 1572–1593. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2020.1743976 Yar, Majid (2018): A Failure to Regulate? The Demands and Dilemmas of Tackling Illegal Content and Behaviour on Social Media. International Journal of Cybersecurity Intelligence and Cybercrime, 1(1), 5–20. Online: https://doi.org/10.52306/01010318RVZE9940" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2023) ["issueId"]=> int(514) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(6) "93-110" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2023.1.6" ["abstract"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(765) "

It is widely known that artificial intelligence is part of our lives. It is also generally feared that artificial intelligence has a potential to endanger human rights in this digital age. The paper intends to examine whether the European Court of Human Rights, dedicated to protecting human rights in Europe, has been forced to deal with artificial intelligence. The main focus of the analysis is the case law of the Court: after the identification of the human rights potentially in danger, the database of the Court’s case law, HUDOC, has been screened by keyword search. Based on the examination of the jurisprudence, the paper will disclose if the Court has artificial intelligencerelated cases and attempts to predict whether it ever will.

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The term “environmental refugees” was used by the United Nations Environmental Program in 1985, drawing the international community’s attention to environmentally induced human mobility for the first time. Almost 40 years on, migration experts, lawyers as well as the international community struggle to define and to conceptualise an imminent phenomenon. Migration studies as such are still struggling for their own emancipation among other fields of social sciences, and now migration experts are challenged with a novel social phenomenon, climate change induced human mobility. In fact, environmentally induced human mobility is not a new phenomenon, it is merely a novel research area. In this article, I will collect and summarise traditional and emerging migration theories and concepts, in order to establish whether climate change induced human mobility may be interpreted by any of these theories at all, or if not, how could these be adapted to understand climate change induced human mobility.

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