Hacktivists, Proxy Groups, Cyber Volunteers

The Future of Non-State Actors’ Involvement in Military Cyber Operations

Abstract

This paper explores the involvement of hacktivists, cyber volunteers and proxy groups in military cyber operations, with a particular focus on their roles in the ongoing Russian–Ukrainian war. The research aims to analyse the participation of these non-state actors, their legal implications, and how their involvement could influence the strategic, operational and tactical practices of small and medium-sized NATO member states, such as Hungary. Drawing from case studies, literature review and in-depth interviews with Hungarian military intelligence and public administration leaders, the paper formulates two hypotheses: 1. Hacktivist groups, unless integrated into a state’s cyber strategy, hinder tactical objectives and raise significant international legal concerns; and 2. Such groups pose a strategic threat to small NATO countries, including Hungary. The findings emphasise the necessity for NATO states to consider how to engage and regulate cyber volunteers effectively, while minimising the risks posed by hacktivist and proxy groups. Additionally, the research underscores the lack of a unified legal framework governing the use of these non-state actors, which complicates their regulation and control in cyberspace conflicts. The paper concludes with recommendations for how NATO states can leverage the openness of civilians to participate in cyber defence while maintaining legal and operational oversight, supporting the involvement of various cyber groups within the framework of international law.