Lithuanian War of Independence
Occupation During World War, Feuds Between Great Powers and Nationality Strifes in Lithuania, 1918–1920
Copyright (c) 2024 Juhász Barnabás
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Abstract
Though the devastation of World War I had limited effect on the Lithuanian territory, the German occupation behind the front meant already a serious burden for the native population and a permanent difficulty for the local political leaders who tried to find balance between creating an independent statehood and collaborating with the occupants. Yet the state independence was not free for any group, and like in other regions of Eastern Europe the end of the world war did not mean the conclusion of struggles, but instead the multiplication of participating factions. In this article I attempt to introduce these events.
Keywords:
References
ALSTON, Charlotte (2006): ’The Suggested Basis for a Russian Federal Republic’: Britain, Anti-Bolshevik Russia and the Border States at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. History, 91(301), 24–44. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-229X.2006.00357.x
ALY, Götz (2019): Európa a zsidók ellen 1880–1945. Budapest: L’Harmattan.
BALKELIS, Tomas (2015): Demobilization and Remobilization of German and Lithuanian Paramilitaries after the First World War. Journal of Baltic Studies, 50(1), Special Issue: The Limits of Demobilization. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022009414551101
BALKELIS, Tomas (2018a): Civilekből katonák: paramilitáris mozgalmak a Baltikumban az első világháború után. In GERWARTH, Robert – HORNE, John (szerk.): Háború béke idején: Paramilitáris erőszak Európában az első világháború után. Budapest: L’Harmattan.
BALKELIS, Tomas (2018b): War, Revolution and Nation-Making in Lithuania, 1914–1923. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199668021.001.0001
BENNETT, Geoffrey (2017): Freeing the Baltic 1918–1920. Barnsley: Pen & Sword Books.
BOJTÁR Endre (2014): A litvákok – Hogyan tűnnek el a zsidók? In KRAUSZ Tamás – BARTA Tamás (szerk.): Az antiszemitizmus történelmi formái a cári birodalomban és a Szovjetunió területén. Budapest: Russica Pannonicana.
BÖHLER, Jochen (2022): Civil War in Central Europe, 1918–1921. The Reconstruction of Poland. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
CSOMA Lajos (2017): Világháború után világforradalom. In KATKÓ Márton – KRAUSZ Tamás – MÉSZÁROS Zsófia (szerk.): Világháború, világforradalom, világbéke? Budapest: ELTE BTK Kelet-Európa Története Tanszék.
CUCUT, Carlo (2022a): Armored Trains of the Baltic Republics. From Independence to Soviet Occupation: 1918–1940. Wrocław: Soldiershop Publishing.
CUCUT, Carlo (2022b): Armored Units of the Baltic Republics – Estonia – Latvia – Lithuania – From Independence to Soviet Occupation: 1918–1940. Wrocław: Soldiershop Publishing.
FOGLESONG, David S. (1995): The United States, Self-Determination and the Struggle Against Bolshevism in the Eastern Baltic Region, 1918–1920. Journal of Baltic Studies, 26(2), 107–144. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01629779500000031
GATRELL, Peter (2017): War, Refugeedom, Revolution. Understandig Russia’s Refugee Crisis, 1914–1918. Cahiers du Monde russe, 58(1–2), 123–146. Online: https://doi.org/10.4000/monderusse.10073
GYŐRFI Lajos (2013): Piłsudski megítélése a lengyel történészek körében 1989 után. In A nemzeti mítoszok szerkezete és funkciója Kelet-Európában. Budapest: L’Harmattan – ELTE BTK Kelet-Európa Története Tanszék.
HAGEN, William W. (2001): Murder in the East: German-Jewish Liberal Reactions to Anti-Jewish Violence in Poland and Other East European Lands, 1918–1920. Central European History, 34,(1), 1–30. Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/156916101750149112
HIDEN, John (2002): The Baltic States and Weimar Ostpolitik. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511523670
LAGZI Gábor (2011): A lengyel keleti politika. Lengyelország keleti szomszédság- és nemzetpolitikája, 1989–2009. Budapest: Terra Recognita Alapítvány. Online: https://bit.ly/4g3zVu9
LAGZI Gábor (2013): Keresztény egyházak a Baltikumban a 20. században. Katolikusok, evangélikusok, ortodoxok. Budapest: Terra Recognita Alapítvány. Online: https://bit.ly/4g3AdkJ
LAURINAVIČIUS, Česlovas (2015): On Political Terror During the Soviet Expansion into Lithuania, 1918–1919. Journal of Baltic Studies, 46(1), Special Issue: War, Revolution and Terror in the Baltic States and Finland after the Great War, 65–76. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2015.1009687
LIULEVICIUS, Vejas Gabriel (2003): War Land on the Eastern Front. Culture, National Identity and German Occupation in World War I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511497186
LOPATA, Raimundas (1993): Lithuanian-Polish Cooperation in 1918: The Ronikier-Voldemaras Treaty. Journal of Baltic Studies, 24(4), 349–358. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01629779300000241
MACMILLAN, Margaret (2005): Béketeremtők. Az 1919-es párizsi békekonferencia. Budapest: GABO.
NELSON, Robert L. (2011): The Baltics as Colonial Playground: Germany in the East, 1914–1918. Journal of Baltic Studies, 42(1), Special Issue: Transnational Governance and Policy-Making in the Baltic Sea Region, 9–19. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2011.538511
NÉMETH István (2007): Demokrácia és diktatúra Németországban 1918–1945. 1. kötet: Az 1918. novemberi forradalom és a Weimari Köztársaság. Összegzés és dokumentumok. Budapest: L’Harmattan.
PIOTROWSKI, Tadeusz (2007): Poland’s Holocaust. Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947. Jefferson, North Carolina – London: McFarland and Company.
RAUCH, Georg von (1994): A balti államok története, 1917–1940. In RAUCH, Georg von – MISIUNAS, Romuald J. – TAAGEPERA, Rein: A balti államok története. Budapest: Osiris–Századvég.
ROMSICS Ignác (2021): Honmentők/honvesztők. Budapest: Helikon.
RUDLING, Per Anders (2015): The Rise and Fall of Belarusian Nationalism, 1906–1931. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1287p7r
SENN, Alfred Erich (1962): The Formation of the Lithuanian Foreign Office, 1918–1921. Slavic Review, 21(3), 500–507. Online: https://doi.org/10.2307/3000451
SZOKOLAY Katalin (2009): A lengyelek és az itt élő többi nép. In JUHÁSZ József – KRAUSZ Tamás (szerk.): Az új nemzetállamok és az etnikai tisztogatások Kelet-Európában 1989 után. Budapest: L’Harmattan – ELTE BTK Kelet-Európa Története Tanszék, 254–268. Online: https://edit.elte.hu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10831/44418/z04_Az_uj_nemzetallamok_es_az_etnikai_tisztogatasok_Kelet-Eu.pdf
TAUBER, Joachim (2006): Stubborn Collaborators: The Politics of the Lithuanian Taryba, 1917–1918. Journal of Baltic Studies, 37(2), Special Issue: Foreign Rule and Collaboration in the Baltic Countries, 1860–1920: New Directions in Research, 194–209. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01629770608628879
VARDYS, V. Stanley (1979): Democracy in the Baltic States, 1918–1934: The Stage and the Actors. Journal of Baltic Studies, 10(4), 320–336. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01629777900000331
WHITE, James D. (1994): National Communism and World Revolution: The Political Consequences of German Military Withdrawal from the Baltic Area in 1918–1919. Europe-Asia Studies, 46(8), 1349–1369. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09668139408412233