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Online: https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/lisbonnetwork/themis/echr/paper2_en.asp CZIGLE János Tamás (2021): Az Európai Unió Bíróságának munkahelyi vallásszabadsággal kapcsolatos joggyakorlata. Doktori értekezés. Pázmány Péter Katolikus Egyetem Jog- és Államtudományi Kar. Online: https://doi.org/10.15774/PPKE.JAK.2021.010 CRANMER, Frank (2017): Wearing Religious Symbols in Court: Hamidović. Law & Religion UK, december 11. Online: https://lawandreligionuk.com/2017/12/11/wearing-religious-symbols-in-court-hamidovic/ DOBÓ Sára Borbála (2023): Emberi Jogok Európai Bíróságának joggyakorlata a lehallgatás megítélésében. MCC Corvinák blog, 2023. március 27. Online: https://corvinak.hu/velemeny/2023/03/27/emberi-jogok-europai-birosaganak-joggyakorlata-a-lehallgatas-megiteleseben ĐUKIĆ, Dalibor (2021): Vallási jelképek a közszférában és az állami szekularitás. Előadás, Belgrádi Egyetem, 2021. április 22. Mádl Ferenc Összehasonlító Jogi Intézet. Online: https://mfi.gov.hu/esemenyek/vallasi-jelkepek-a-kozszferaban-es-az-allami-szekularitas/ European Centre for Law and Justice (2023): Worrying Signs: Reflections on the CJEU’s Secular Bias in Religious Liberty Jurisprudence. 2023. július 18. Online: https://eclj.org/religious-freedom/eu/worrying-signs-reflections-on-the-cjeus-secular-bias-in-religious-liberty-jurisprudence FERRI, Marcella (2022): The Interplay between Religious Discrimination in the Workplace and Fundamental Rights: The Cherry-Pick Approach of the EU Court of Justice. Eurojus, (1), 291–311. Online: https://rivista.eurojus.it/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Qui25.pdf GUVELI, Ayse – PLATT, Lucinda (2023): Religiosity of Migrants and Natives in Western Europe 2002–2018: Convergence and Divergence. European Journal of Population, 39(9), 1–27. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10680-023-09660-9 SZAJBÉLY Katalin (2018): Vallási jelképek viselése a munkahelyeken – újabb irány az Emberi Jogok Európai Bíróságának gyakorlatában. Közjogi Szemle, 11(2), 1–8. Online: https://szakcikkadatbazis.hu/doc/4185314 KOLTAY András (2015): A vallási ruházat és jelképek viselésének korlátai – fejkendők és keresztek. Acta Humana, 3(3), 7–33. Online: https://real.mtak.hu/98829/1/ActaHumanacikk.pdf LAULOM, Sylvaine (2019): Religion at Work: European Perspectives. Hungarian Labour Law E-Journal, 2019/1. Online: https://hllj.hu/letolt/2019_1_a/01_Laulom_angol_hllj_2019_1.pdf LENAERTS, Koen (2018): The ECHR and the CJEU: Creating Synergies in the Field of Fundamental Rights Protection. In Dialogue between Judges. Proceedings of the Seminar 26 January 2018. Strasbourg: European Court of Human Rights, 57–64. Online: https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/speech_20180126_lenaerts_eng LENAERTS, Koen – GUTIÉRREZ-FONS, José A. (2014): The Place of the Charter in the EU Constitutional Edifice. In PEERS, Steve – HERVEY, Tamara – KENNER, Jeff – WARD Angela (szerk.): The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights: A Commentary. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 1559–1594. Online: https://doi.org/10.5771/9783845259055_1600 PEYROUX-SISSOKO, Marie-Odile (2017): Immaterial Public Order: Legal Response to Social Crisis? Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies, 58(2), 224–232. Online: https://doi.org/10.1556/2052.2017.58.2.7 PUPPINCK, Gregor (2012): The Case of Lautsi v Italy: A Synthesis. Brigham Young University Law Review, 2012(3), 873–930. Online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2320576 SCHANDA Balázs (2014): A vallásszabadság, a lelkiismeret szabadsága. In SCHANDA Balázs – BALOGH Zsolt (szerk.): Alkotmányjog – Alapjogok. Budapest: Pázmány Press, 153–168. SULYOK Márton (2020): Európa akarta – 20 éves lett az Alapjogi Charta. Corvinák, 2020. október 14. Online: https://corvinak.hu/vilag/2020/10/14/europa-akarta-20-eves-lett-a-charta SULYOK, Márton – KISS, Lilla Nóra (2021): Difficulties in “Chartering” the Course – The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights in the Jurisprudence of the Hungarian Constitutional Court. Hungarian Yearbook of International Law and European Law, 315–339. Online: https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17006.69449 Velencei Bizottság (2008): Report on the relationship between Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Religion: the issue of regulation and prosecution of Blasphemy, Religious Insult and Incitement to Religious Hatred. CDL-AD(2008)026, 2008. október 23. Online: https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2008)026-e Jogforrások - 1993. évi XXXI. törvény az emberi jogok és alapvető szabadságok védelméről szóló, Rómában 1950. november 4-én kelt Egyezmény és az ahhoz tartozó nyolc kiegészítő jegyzőkönyv kihirdetéséről. Az Európai Unió Alapjogi Chartája. Az Európai Unió Hivatalos Lapja, 2016. június 7. Online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/HU/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:12016P/TXT Az Olasz Köztársaság Szenátusa [é. n.]: Az Olasz Köztársaság Alkotmánya (La Costituzione della Repubblica Italiana). Online: https://www.senato.it/istituzione/la-costituzione Bírósági joggyakorlat EJEB [Nagykamara], Eweida és mások kontra Egyesült Királyság, 48420/10, 59842/10, 51671/10 és 36516/10. sz. kérelmek, ítélet, 2013. május 27. EJEB [Nagykamara], Lautsi és mások kontra Olaszország, 30814/06. sz. kérelem, ítélet, 2011. március 18. EJEB [Nagykamara], Leyla Şahin kontra Törökország, 44774/98. sz. kérelem, ítélet, ECHR 2005-XI. EJEB [Nagykamara], S.A.S. kontra Franciaország, 43835/11. sz. kérelem, ítélet, 2014. július 1. EJEB, Dahlab kontra Svájc, 42393/98. sz. kérelem, elfogadhatatlansági döntés, 2001. február 15., EJEB 2001-II. EJEB, Hamidović kontra Bosznia és Hercegovina, 57792/15. sz. kérelem, ítélet, 2018. március 5. EJEB, Kokkinakis kontra Görögország, 14307/88. sz. kérelem, ítélet, 1993. május 25. EJEB, Mikyas és mások kontra Belgium, 50681/20. sz. kérelem, ítélet, 2024. január 23. 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The protection of the forum externum, the margin of appreciation, and the proportionality review of workplace neutrality policies are the main topics of this article’s comparison of the case law on religious symbols from the ECtHR and the CJEU. In contrast to the Luxembourg jurisprudence (Achbita, Bougnaoui, WABE/Müller), which employs a more formal proportionality test rooted in equal treatment and internal market logic, the Strasbourg line (Kokkinakis, Dahlab, Leyla Şahin, Lautsi, Eweida, S.A.S., Hamidović, Mikyas) is context-sensitive and grants greater deference to national constitutional identity. The paper makes the case that a more cohesive effects-based analysis focused on observable individual harm could unify the approaches despite disparate systemic goals.

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A forum externum védelme, a mérlegelési mozgástér (margin of appreciation), valamint a munkahelyi semlegességi politikák arányossági felülvizsgálata e tanulmány összehasonlításának fő kulcspontjai az EJEB és az EUB vallási szimbólumokra vonatkozó ítélkezési gyakorlatáról. Szemben a luxembourgi joggyakorlattal (Achbita, Bougnaoui, WABE/Müller), amely az egyenlő bánásmód és a belső piac logikájában gyökerező, formálisabb arányossági tesztet alkalmaz, a strasbourgi irány (Kokkinakis, Dahlab, Leyla Şahin, Lautsi, Eweida, S.A.S., Hamidović, Mikyas) kontextusérzékeny, és nagyobb teret enged a nemzeti alkotmányos identitásnak. A tanulmány amellett érvel, hogy egy egységesebb, hatásalapú – a megfigyelhető egyéni sérelemre összpontosító – elemzés az eltérő rendszerszintű célok ellenére is egységesíthetné a megközelítéseket.

" } ["prefix"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["subtitle"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(47) "An Analysis of the Strasbourg–Luxembourg Axis" ["hu_HU"]=> string(43) "A Strasbourg–Luxembourg-tengely elemzése" } ["title"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(59) "Religious Symbols and the Conflicts of Secularism in Europe" ["hu_HU"]=> string(66) "Vallási szimbólumok és a szekularizmus konfliktusai Európában" } ["copyrightHolder"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> string(22) "Hérics Attila István" } ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["authors"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(Author)#754 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(11654) ["email"]=> string(24) "herics.attila@icloud.com" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(8990) ["seq"]=> int(1) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(7) "Hérics" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(14) "Attila István" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } ["keywords"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> array(7) { [0]=> string(19) "freedom of religion" [1]=> string(17) "religious symbols" [2]=> string(10) "secularism" [3]=> string(22) "margin of appreciation" [4]=> string(15) "proportionality" [5]=> string(20) "workplace neutrality" [6]=> string(15) "equal treatment" } ["hu_HU"]=> array(7) { [0]=> string(17) "vallásszabadság" [1]=> string(21) "vallási szimbólumok" [2]=> string(13) "szekularizmus" [3]=> string(22) "margin of appreciation" [4]=> string(12) "arányosság" [5]=> string(23) "munkahelyi semlegesség" [6]=> string(20) "egyenlő bánásmód" } } ["subjects"]=> array(0) { } ["disciplines"]=> array(0) { } ["languages"]=> array(0) { } ["supportingAgencies"]=> array(0) { } ["galleys"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(ArticleGalley)#767 (7) { ["_data"]=> array(9) { ["submissionFileId"]=> int(44854) ["id"]=> int(6689) ["isApproved"]=> bool(false) ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["label"]=> string(3) "PDF" ["publicationId"]=> int(8990) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["urlPath"]=> string(0) "" ["urlRemote"]=> string(0) "" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(true) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_submissionFile"]=> NULL } } } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) }

object(Publication)#739 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(28) { ["id"]=> int(8075) ["accessStatus"]=> int(0) ["datePublished"]=> string(10) "2026-02-25" ["lastModified"]=> string(19) "2026-02-25 09:26:52" ["primaryContactId"]=> int(10257) ["sectionId"]=> int(67) ["seq"]=> int(2) ["submissionId"]=> int(7951) ["status"]=> int(3) ["version"]=> int(1) ["categoryIds"]=> array(0) { } ["citationsRaw"]=> string(4653) "BRACKEN, Lydia (2024): Accommodations of Private and Family Life and Non-Traditional Families: the Limits of Deference in Cases of Cross-Border Surrogacy before the European Court of Human Rights. Medical Law Review, 32(2), 141–157. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwad038 BRIGHOUSE, Harry – SWIFT, Adam (2014): Family Values. The Ethics of Parent-Child Relationships. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691126913.001.0001 ČULO MARGALETIĆ, Anica – PRELOŽNJAK, Barbara – ŠIMOVIĆ, Ivan (2019): Presumption of Motherhood on Crossroad of Surrogacy Arrangements in EU. EU and Comparative law Issues and Challenges Series (ECLIC), 3, 778–802. Online: https://doi.org/10.25234/eclic/9031 ERDŐSOVÁ, Andrea (2020): Náhradné materstvo ako bioetický problém z pohľadu ochrany základných práv a slobôd. Justičná revue, 72(4), 471–480. GARAYOVÁ, Lilla (2023): La evolución de la maternidad subrogada transfronteriza en la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Europeo de Derechos Humanos. Revista de Derecho Civil, 10(5), 259–277. GHEAUS, Anca (2012): The Right to Parent One’s Biological Baby*. Journal of Political Philosophy, 20(4), 432–455. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2011.00402.x GHEAUS, Anca (2015): Is There a Right to Parent? Law, Ethics and Philosophy, (3), 193–204. Online: https://philpapers.org/archive/GHEITA-2.pdf KOFFEMAN, Nelleke (2015): Morally Sensitive Issues and Cross-Border Movement in the EU. Cambridge–Antwerp–Portland: Larcier Intersentia. KORAĆ GRAOVAC, Aleksandra (2021): Family Protection in Croatia. In BARZÓ, Tímea – LENKOVICS Barnabás (eds.): Family Protection From a Legal Perspective. Budapest–Miskolc: Ferenc Mádl Institute of Comparative Law – Central European Academic Publishing, 37–76. https://doi.org/10.54237/profnet.2021.tbblfl_2 MACLEOD, Colin (2010): Parental Responsibilities in an Unjust World. In ARCHARD, David – BENATAR, David (eds.): Procreation and Parenthood: The Ethics of Bearing and Rearing Children. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 128–150. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199590704.003.0006 MÄRZ, Julian W. (2021): What Makes a Parent in Surrogacy Cases? Reflections on the Fjölnisdóttir et al. v. Iceland Decision of the European Court of Human Rights. Social & Legal Studies, 21(3), 272–285. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/09685332211043499 MULLIGAN, Andrea (2018): Identity Rights and Sensitive Ethical Questions: The European Convention on Human Rights and the Regulation of Surrogacy Arrangements. Medical Law Review, 26(3), 449–475. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwx066 SPANO, Robert (2018): The Future of the European Court of Human Rights – Subsidiarity, Process-Based Review and the Rule of Law. Human Rights Law Review, 18(3), 473–494. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngy015 TRIMMINGS, Katarina (2019): Surrogacy Arrangements and the Best Interests of the Child: The Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights. In BERGAMINI, Elisabetta – RAGNI, Chiara (eds.): Fundamental Rights and Best Interests of the Child in Transnational Families. Intersentia. 187–208. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781780689395.012 TRIMMINGS, Katarina (2023): ECtHR and Cross-Border Surrogacy Arrangements: K.K. and others v. Denmark Legal Memorandum. Child Identity Protection. Online: https://www.child-identity.org/images/files/CHIP-2023-Surrogacy-LegalMemorandum.pdf BAILLON-WIRTZ, Nathalie (2019): Surrogate Motherhood in France: Ethical and Legal Issues. In MOSTOWIK, Piotr (ed.): Fundamental Legal Problems of Surrogate Motherhood: Global Perspective. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Wymiaru Sprawiedliwości, 99–132. Legal sources Advisory Opinion No. P16-2018-001 concerning the recognition in domestic law of a legal parent-child relationship between a child born through a gestational surrogacy arrangement abroad and the intended mother Grand Chamber, request no. P16-2018-001, French Court of Cassation, 10 April 2019 D v. Belgium, Application no. 29176/13, Judgment 11 September 2014 D. and Others v. Belgium, Application no. 29176/13, Judgement 8 July 2014 K.K. and Others v. Denmark, Application no. 25212/21, Judgement 6 December 2022 Labassee v. France, Application no. 65941/11, Judgment 26 June 2014 Mennesson v. France, Application no. 65192/11, Judgment 26 June 2014 Paradiso and Campanelli v. Italy Application no. 25358/12, Judgement 27 January 2015 Paradiso and Campanelli v. Italy, App no. 25358/12, Grand Chamber, Judgement 24 January 2017 Valdís Fjölnisdóttir and Others v. Iceland, no. 71552/17, 18 May 2021" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2026) ["issueId"]=> int(672) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "23-42" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2025.3.2" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(1108) "

The emergence of assisted reproductive techniques (ART) has sparked ethical and moral dilemmas concerning family, parenthood, and child rearing. Consequently, the most controversial technique, surrogacy, and the legal and human rights implications of cross-border surrogacy cases were brought before the European Court of Human Rights (Court). The right to become a parent is an inappropriate focal point in surrogacy debates, as it prioritises adult-centred reproductive claims over the best interests of the child. The Court’s case law incorporated a “process-based approach” in the initial leading cases, although recent case law suggests a development of value-based assessment, which might not lie in line with the sovereignty of the member states to regulate sensitive aspects of family law and ART. The fact that obtaining parental rights motivates parents to engage in surrogacy, and the willingness of the Court to facilitate this in cases of surrogacy involving cross-border recognition of parental rights, may spark tension between national laws on surrogacy based on national values.

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object(Publication)#118 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(30) { ["id"]=> int(8991) ["accessStatus"]=> int(0) ["datePublished"]=> string(10) "2026-02-25" ["lastModified"]=> string(19) "2026-02-25 09:26:52" ["primaryContactId"]=> int(11655) ["sectionId"]=> int(67) ["seq"]=> int(3) ["submissionId"]=> int(8866) ["status"]=> int(3) ["version"]=> int(1) ["categoryIds"]=> array(0) { } ["citationsRaw"]=> string(1069) "BELOVICS Ervin – GELLÉR Balázs – NAGY Ferenc – TÓTH Mihály (2012): Büntetőjog I. Általános rész – A 2012. évi C. törvény alapján. Budapest: HVG-ORAC. CZEBE András (2023): Gondolatok a tényleges életfogytig tartó szabadságvesztés hazai szabályozásáról. Kúriai Döntések: Bírósági Határozatok, 71(12), 3197–3205. FOUCAULT, Michel (1990): Felügyelet és büntetés. A börtön története. Budapest: Gondolat. GELLÉR Balázs (2017): A tényleges életfogytig tartó szabadságvesztés – Büntetőjog- elméleti meggondolások tükrében. In HOLLÁN Miklós – BARABÁS A. Tünde (szerk.): A negyedik magyar büntetőkódex régi és újabb vitakérdései. Budapest: MTA TK JTI – OKRI, 88–108. MÁROK Soma (2015): Gondolatok a három csapásról. Jogászvilág, 2015. március 31. Online: https://jogaszvilag.hu/a-jovo-jogasza/gondolatok-a-harom-csapasrol/ Mikor szabható ki a tényleges életfogytiglan? Jogászvilág, 2020. június 10. Online: https://jogaszvilag.hu/napi/mikor-szabhato-ki-a-tenyleges-eletfogytiglan" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2026) ["issueId"]=> int(672) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "43-52" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2025.3.3" ["abstract"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(955) "

Under the current Criminal Code, life imprisonment without parole constitutes the most severe penalty that can be imposed, that is, the strictest sanction within the Hungarian criminal justice system. The application and enforcement of life imprisonment without parole have for decades been the subject of intense constitutional and human rights debates in Hungary, in Europe, and across the world. While the very legitimacy of life imprisonment without parole is not fundamentally disputed, it is clear that from the perspective of fundamental (human) rights such a sanction entails numerous potential problems and anomalies, even though the Hungarian regulation continuously seeks to comply with the positions and expectations of the international fora. The aim of this study is to provide an overview of the principal fundamental rights dimensions of life imprisonment without parole in light of Hungarian legal regulation and judicial practice.

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A tényleges életfogytig tartó szabadságvesztés a hatályos büntető törvénykönyvünk értelmében a legsúlyosabb kiszabható büntetés, azaz a hazai büntető-igazságszolgáltatás legszigorúbb szankciója. A tényleges életfogytig tartó szabadságvesztés alkalmazása, végrehajtása évtizedek óta élénk alkotmányossági és emberi jogi viták tárgya hazánkban, Európában és a világ számos pontján. A tényleges életfogytig tartó szabadságvesztés létjogosultsága alapvetően nem vitatott, ugyanakkor világos, hogy alapjogi (emberi jogi) tárgyú vizsgálódás tükrében számtalan potenciális problémát, visszásságot rejt magában, noha a magyar szabályozás folyamatosan igyekszik eleget tenni a nemzetközi fórumok állásfoglalásainak és elvárásainak. A jelen tanulmány célja, hogy áttekintse a tényleges életfogytig tartó szabadságvesztés legfőbb alapjogi vetületeit a magyar jogi szabályozás és bírósági gyakorlat szempontjából.

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object(Publication)#120 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(30) { ["id"]=> int(8992) ["accessStatus"]=> int(0) ["datePublished"]=> string(10) "2026-02-25" ["lastModified"]=> string(19) "2026-02-25 09:26:51" ["primaryContactId"]=> int(11656) ["sectionId"]=> int(67) ["seq"]=> int(4) ["submissionId"]=> int(8867) ["status"]=> int(3) ["version"]=> int(1) ["categoryIds"]=> array(0) { } ["citationsRaw"]=> string(11929) "Al Jazeera (2024): Russia and Ukraine to Exchange More Children after Qatar-brokered Deal. Al Jazeera, 2024. november 29. Online: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/29/russia-and-ukraine-to-exchange-more-children-after-qatar-brokered-deal Amnesty International (2022): Ukraine: “Like a Prison Convoy”: Russia’s Unlawful Transfer and Abuse of Civilians in Ukraine during ‘Filtration’. Online: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur50/6136/2022/en/ Anti-Discrimination Centre Memorial Brussels (2023): Violation of the Rights of Children Taken from Ukraine to Russia and Belarus as a Result of Russian Military Aggression. 2023. június 12. Online: https://adcmemorial.org/en/publications/violation-of-the-rights-of-children-taken-from-ukraine-to-russia-and-belarus-as-a-result-of-russian-military-aggression/ BÍLKOVÁ, Veronika – ŠTEINERTE, Elīna (2024): The Moscow Mechanism Expert Report: On the Arbitrary Deprivation of Liberty of Ukrainian Civilians by the Russian Federation. EJIL: Talk!, 2024. május 23. Online: https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-moscow-mechanism-expert-report-on-the-arbitrary-deprivation-of-liberty-of-ukrainian-civilians-by-the-russian-federation/ BÍLKOVÁ, Veronika – HELLESTVEIT, Cecilie – ŠTEINERTE, Elīna (2023): Report on Violations and Abuses of International Humanitarian and Human Rights Law, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, Related to the Forcible Transfer and/or Deportation of Ukrainian Children to the Russian Federation. Online: https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/7/7/542751.pdf GILLICH, Ines (2025): Forced Adoptions of Ukrainian Children from an International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law Perspective. Pace International Law Review, 37(1), 57–88. Online: https://doi.org/10.58948/2331-3536.1442 HENCKAERTS, Jean-Marie (2005): Tanulmány a nemzetközi humanitárius szokásjogról: Hozzájárulás a fegyveres összeütközések során alkalmazandó jogszabályok megértéséhez és tiszteletben tartásához. International Review of the Red Cross, 87(857), 175–212. Online: https://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/external/doc/en/assets/files/other/hun-irrc_857_henckaerts.pdf HENCKAERTS, Jean-Marie – DOSWALD-BECK, Louise (2005): Customary International Humanitarian Law, Volume I: Rules. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804700 HOFFMANN, Tamás (2017): Az emberiesség elleni bűncselekmények nemzetközi és magyar jogi szabályozása. Állam- és Jogtudomány, 58(1), 29–55. Online: https://epa.oszk.hu/04100/04129/00015/pdf/EPA04129_allam-_es_jogtudomany_2017_1_029-055.pdf Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine (2023a): Report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/52/62). Online: https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/52/62 Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine (2023b): Report to the UN General Assembly (A/78/540). Online: https://docs.un.org/en/A/78/540 International Committee of the Red Cross (2003): Legal Protection of Children in Armed Conflict. 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Online: https://www.russiaun.ru/en/news/arria_050423 PICTET, Jean S. (1958): The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Commentary – IV Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross. Online: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/7d971f/ PLATTNER, Denise (1984): Protection of Children in International Humanitarian Law. International Review of the Red Cross, 24(240), 140–152. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S002086040006993X RAYMOND, Nathaniel A. – HATHAWAY, Oona A. – HOWARTH, Caitlin N. – KHOSHNOOD, Kaveh (2024): Intentional, Systematic, & Widespread: Russia’s Program of Coerced Adoption and Fostering of Ukraine’s Children. Yale School of Public Health Humanitarian Research Lab, 2024. december 3. Online: https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/russias-systematic-program-of-coerced-adoption-and-fostering-of-ukraines-children/ Russia Returns 3 Ukrainian Children With Qatari Mediation (2025). 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Online: https://lieber.westpoint.edu/deportation-ukrainian-civilians-russia-legal-framework/ SCHMITT, Michael N. (2022b): Ukraine Symposium – Protected Zones in International Humanitarian Law. Lieber Institute at West Point – Articles of War, 2022. augusztus 24. Online: https://lieber.westpoint.edu/protected-zones-international-humanitarian-law/ Security Council Report (2020): Arria-formula Meetings: UN Security Council Working Methods. 2020. december 16. Online: https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-security-council-working-methods/arria-formula-meetings.php STERN, David L. – FRANCIS, Ellen – NAKASHIMA, Ellen – SLATER, Joanna (2022): Ukraine Says Russia Thwarting Wider Civilian Evacuations as Sumy Corridor Opens, Thousands Flee. The Washington Post, 2022. március 8. Online: https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/03/08/evacuation-corridors-ukraine-tuesday/ UNICEF (2022): Guidance for Protecting Displaced and Refugee Children in and Outside of Ukraine. 2022. november 1. Online: https://www.unicef.org/emergencies/guidance-protecting-displaced-children-ukraine UNICEF (2024): Situation Analysis of Children in Ukraine: 2024. Online: https://www.unicef.org/ukraine/en/media/49206/file/UNICEF_SitAn_2024_ENG.pdf.pdf United Nations [é. n.]: Definition of Genocide. United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. Online: https://www.un.org/en/genocide-prevention/definition United Nations Human Rights Council [é. n.]: Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine. Online: https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/hrc/iicihr-ukraine/index VARGA Réka (2021): Conflict-related Sexual Violence: Reasons, Applicable Legal Provisions and Humanitarian Response. In KAJTÁR, Gábor – SONNEVEND, Pál (szerk.): A nemzetközi jog, az uniós jog és a nemzetközi kapcsolatok szerepe a 21. században. Tanulmányok Valki László tiszteletére. Budapest: ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, 557–573. VARGA, Réka (2024): The Russian-Ukrainian War: The Possibilities of Ensuring Accountability. Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies, 64(4), 580–588. Online: https://doi.org/10.1556/2052.2024.00007 VARGA, Réka (2025): Effects of War Crimes in the Rome Statute on the System of National Prosecutions. With Particular Emphasis on Universal Jurisdiction. In BÉRES Nóra (szerk.): The ICC at 25: Lessons Learnt. Budapest-Miskolc: Central European Academic Publishing, 195–211. Online: https://doi.org/10.54237/profnet.2025.nbicc_9 Yale School of Public Health Humanitarian Research Lab (2024): Russia’s Systematic Program of Coerced Adoption and Fostering of Ukraine’s Children. A Conflict Observatory Report, 2024. december 3. https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/a7cf7b6a-3418-4e74-a716-3f049323d728 Yale School of Public Health Humanitarian Research Lab [é. n.]: Help the Humanitarian Research Lab Keep Finding Ukraine’s Abducted Children. Online: https://medicine.yale.edu/lab/khoshnood/give-now/ Nemzetközi szerződések A népirtás bűntettének megelőzése és megbüntetése tárgyában 1948. évi december 9. napján kelt nemzetközi Egyezmény A polgári lakosság háború idején való védelmére vonatkozóan Genfben, 1949. augusztus 12-én kelt Egyezmény Az 1949. augusztus 12-én kötött Genfi Egyezményeket kiegészítő I. Jegyzőkönyv a nemzetközi fegyveres összeütközések áldozatainak védelméről A gyermek jogairól szóló, New Yorkban, 1989. november 20-án kelt Egyezmény A Nemzetközi Büntetőbíróság Rómában, 1998. július 17-én elfogadott Statútuma International Criminal Court (2011): Elements of Crimes. Online: https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/ElementsOfCrimesEng.pdf Esetjog Prosecutor v. Radoslav Brđanin, Judgment of 1 September 2004, Case No. IT-99-36-T, Trial Chamber II Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojević and Dragan Jokić, Judgment of 17 January 2005, Case No. IT-02-60-T, Trial Chamber I" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2026) ["issueId"]=> int(672) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "53-76" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2025.3.4" ["abstract"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(942) "

The paper explores the issue of forced displacement of Ukrainian children in the context of the Russian–Ukrainian conflict. Drawing on reports from international organisations and research institutes, it provides an overview of how the documented cases can be interpreted within the framework of international law. The paper offers a detailed account of the provisions of international humanitarian law relating to the protection of children with particular attention to forced transfers and deportations. Building on these foundations, it examines the extent to which displacement practices align with established legal standards and where divergences may be observed. Tracing the process of displacement step by step, the paper outlines the relevant legal framework and evaluates how the documented cases have unfolded in light of these norms. Finally, it also discusses the potential implications under international criminal law.

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A tanulmány az ukrán gyermekek kényszerű áttelepítésének kérdését vizsgálja az orosz–ukrán konfliktus kontextusában. Nemzetközi szervezetek és kutatóintézetek jelentéseit feldolgozva áttekintést ad arról, miként értelmezhetők a dokumentált esetek a nemzetközi jog keretein belül. A tanulmány részletesen bemutatja a nemzetközi humanitárius jog gyermekek védelmére vonatkozó szabályait, különösen az erőszakos kitelepítések és deportálások szempontjából. Ezek alapján elemzi, hogy az áttelepítések a gyakorlatban mennyiben illeszkednek a jog által meghatározott követelményekhez, és hol mutatkoznak eltérések azokhoz képest. A tanulmány az áttelepítések folyamatát lépésről lépésre követve vázolja a vonatkozó jogi előírásokat, és értékeli, hogy a dokumentált esetek miként valósulnak meg mindezek tükrében. Zárásként pedig a lehetséges nemzetközi büntetőjogi vonatkozásokat is feltérképezi.

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This paper examines the use of economic sanctions as a tool of international policy, focusing specifically on their application to Syria. The study reviews key definitions and types of economic sanctions, highlighting their role in influencing state behaviour while avoiding military intervention. Using a case study methodology, this analysis examines the sanctions imposed by the United States, the European Union, and other international actors since 2011. The paper assesses the economic and humanitarian implications of these measures, including substantial declines in national GDP, disruptions to oil production, inflation, food insecurity, and restricted access to essential medicines. The research also considers the ethical and legal debates surrounding sanctions, emphasising their disproportionate impact on civilian populations rather than political elites. The findings indicate that while sanctions aim to achieve strategic political objectives, their implementation often exacerbates humanitarian crises and undermines human rights. The paper concludes that multilateral coordination and targeted, “smart” sanctions are more effective and ethically justified than broad comprehensive measures. A balanced approach that aligns political goals with humanitarian considerations is necessary for a fair and sustainable application of economic sanctions in international relations.

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Online: https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v4n3p264 BLIXT, Carley – KIRYTOPOULOS, Konstantinos (2017): Challenges and Competencies for Project Management in the Australian Public Service. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 30(3), 286–300. Online: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-08-2016-0132 CHANYALEW, Mulatu (2014): The Significance and Practice of Good Governance in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The Case of Bole Sub-city. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Social Science. Online: http://www.repository.smuc.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/2808/1/Mulat%20Chanyalew.pdf Civil Service Human Resources (2017): Civil Service Competency Framework 2012–2017. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a815610ed915d74e33fda4b/cscf_fulla4potrait_2013-2017_v2d.pdf DIBABA, Solomon (2015): Opportunities and Challenges for Good Governance in Ethiopia: The Ethiopian Herald, 8 October 2015. Online: https://allafrica.com/stories/201510091427.html DRAGANIDIS, Fotis – MENTZAS, Gregoris (2006): Competency Based Management: A Review of Systems and Approaches. Information Management & Computer Security, 14(1), 51–64. Online: https://doi.org/10.1108/09685220610648373 GAMARRA, Pilar – GIROTTO, Michele – SEGUÍ-AMÓRTEGUI, Luis (2019): Managerial Competencies in the 21st Century: A Bibliographic Review of the Research Domain. In EDULEARN19: 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies. Palma, Spain: International Association of Technology, Education and Development (IATED), 3733–3742. Online: https://doi.org/10.21125/edulearn.2019.0970 HARITS, Benyamin – BHAGYA, Tombak G. (2022, March). The Influence of Civil Servant Competence and Bureaucratic Reform on Organizational Performance at the Government Offices in Cianjur. In Proceedings of the First International Conference on Science, Technology, Engineering and Industrial Revolution (ICSTEIR 2020). Atlantis Press, 17–22. Online: https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210312.003 KOTHARI, C. R. (2004): Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: New Age International Publishers. KUMAR, Ranjit (2011): Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners. Third ed. London: Sage Publications Ltd. LAWLER, Edward (1994): From job‐based to competency‐based organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(1), 3–15. Online: https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030150103 NUNES, Francisco – MARTINS, Luis – DUARTE, Henrique (2007): Competency Management in EU Public Administrations. Survey Commissioned by the Portuguese EU-Presidency–EUPAN – Human Resources Working Group. Online: https://www.eupan.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2007_2_PT_Competency_Management_in_EU_Public_Administrations.pdf OP DE BEECK, Sophie – HONDEGHEM, Annie (2010): Managing Competencies in Government: State of the Art Practices and Issues at Stake for the Future. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Online: https://soc.kuleuven.be/io/onderzoek/project/files/hrm27-gov-gc-pem-2010.pdf POBRIC, Braco (2021): Top Ten Management Competencies. LinkedIn, 8 December 2021. Online: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/top-ten-management-competencies-pobric-leader-and-happiness-expert?trk=public_profile_article_view REKAŠIENĖ, Reda – SUDNICKAS, Tadas (2014): Kompetencijų modelio kūrimas ir taikymo perspektyvos Lietuvos valstybės tarnyboje. Viešoji Politika ir Administravimas, 13(4), 590–600. Online: https://doi.org/10.13165/VPA-14-13-4-04 ROBERTS, T. Grady – HARDER, Amy – LINDNER, James (2022): 2022 State of the Journal Report. Advancements in Agricultural Development, 3(1), 1–3. Online: https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v3i1.191 SARKAR, K. (2014): Strengthening Human Resource Management of Civil Service. Retrieved from https://dopt.gov.in (or appropriate URL) SINGIRIKONDAA, Haveesh – DESAI, Shantanu (2020): Model Comparison of ΛCDM vs Rh= ct using Cosmic Chronometers. The European Physical Journal C, Particles and Fields, 80(8). Online: https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-020-8289-8 YAMANE, Taro (1967): Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. New York: Harper & Row." ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2026) ["issueId"]=> int(672) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(6) "87-108" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2025.3.6" ["abstract"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(1471) "

Civil service performance remains a critical concern for public institutions. Managers with strong competencies tend to deliver higher-quality services to citizens. However, misapplication of management competencies often undermines performance outcomes. This study aims to analyse and compare the impact of management competencies on civil service performance across two urban administrations. A mixed-methods approach was employed, utilising structured and unstructured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Data were analysed using SPSS for both descriptive and inferential statistics. Results show that several key factors moderately influence civil service performance in both study areas. The coefficient of determination and Pearson correlation coefficients reveal statistically significant and positive relationships among these factors. While overall performance levels between the two cities – Addis Ababa and Adama – are similar, Addis Ababa demonstrates slightly stronger outcomes. Despite some progress, several challenges persist: lack of long-term strategic planning, limited support for employee innovation, insufficient stakeholder engagement, inadequate continuous learning, and underutilisation of modern technology. To enhance institutional performance and competitiveness, it is essential to strengthen the factors contributing to management competency development and align them with strategic priorities.

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