Interpretive Dilemmas of Cyber Espionage in the Context of Cyber Operations
Interpretive Challenges in Defining Cyber Espionage, Part 1
Copyright (c) 2026 Kovács Kinga Virág
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Abstract
The first part of this two-part study examines the conceptual and doctrinal dilemmas surrounding cyber espionage, highlighting the overlaps and differences between cyber reconnaissance, cyber intelligence gathering, and cyber espionage. It analyzes how cyber espionage, although not a military concept, is technically implemented and has effects in the context of military cyber operations, which creates significant interpretative uncertainty. The aim of this section is to explore the reasons for this conceptual gray area and to lay the groundwork for further technical and legal examination of cyber espionage. The second part of the study analyzes the difficulties of classifying cyber espionage under international law.
Keywords:
References
- 1139/2013. (III. 21.) Korm. határozat Magyarország Nemzeti Kiberbiztonsági Stratégiájáról, II. pont.
AKOTO, William (2024): Who Spies on Whom? Unravelling the Puzzle of State-Sponsored Cyber Economic Espionage. Journal of Peace Research, 61(1), 59–71. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433231214417
CIVULI, Abdulla et al. (2022): Cyber Espionage Consequences as a Growing Threat. Journal of Natural Sciences and Mathematics of UT, 7, 13–14. Online: https://sites.google.com/unite.edu.mk/jnsm/vol-7-no-13-14-2022?authuser=0
DEÁK Veronika (2023): Hírszerzés a kibertérben. In KRASZNAY Csaba (szerk.): Taktikák és stratégiák a kiberhadviselésben. Budapest: Ludovika, 87–114. Online: https://doi.org/10.36250/01079_04
HAIG, Zsolt (2015): Electronic warfare in cyberspace. Security and Defence Quarterly, 2(7), 22–35. Online: https://doi.org/10.5604/23008741.1189275
Joint Chief of Staff (2012): JP 3-13.1. Electronic Warfare.
Joint Chief of Staff (2018): JP 3-12. Cyberspace Operations.
KOVÁCS László (2017): Az elektronikai hadviselés jelene és lehetséges jövője. Hadmérnök, 12(1), 213–232. Online: http://hadmernok.hu/171_17_kovacs.pdf
KOVÁCS László (2018): A kibertér védelme. Budapest: Dialóg Campus. Online: https://www.uni-nke.hu/document/uni-nke-hu/Kov%C3%A1cs%20L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3.pdf
LIBICKI, Martin (2017): The Coming of Cyber Espionage Norms. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 11(2), 10–27. Online: https://doi.org/10.23919/CYCON.2017.8240325
Mandiant. APT1: Exposing One of China’s Cyber Espionage Units. Mandiant Intelligence Center Report, 2013. Online: https://services.google.com/fh/files/misc/mandiant-apt1-report.pdf
Russian Federation (2016): Doctrine of Information Security of the Russian Federation. Online: http://www.scrf.gov.ru/security/information/DIB_engl/
SCHMITT, Michael (2017): Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations. Cambridge University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316822524
STODDART, Kristan (2024): Russia’s Cyber Campaigns and the Ukraine War: From the ‘Gray Zone’ to the ‘Red Zone’. Applied Cybersecurity & Internet Governance, 3(1), 5–33. Online: https://doi.org/10.60097/ACIG/189358
SZELECZKI Szilveszter (2022): A kiberhírszerzés értelmezése és helye a nemzetbiztonságban. Nemzetbiztonsági Szemle, 10(4), 17–29. Online: https://doi.org/10.32561/nsz.2022.4.2
U.S. Department of the Army (2014): Field Manual 3-38: Cyber Electromagnetic Activities. Washington, DC: Headquarters, Department of the Army. Online: https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/fm3-38.pdf
U.S Department of Defense (2023): Cyber Strategy of The Department of Defense, Summary. Online: https://media.defense.gov/2023/Sep/12/2003299076/-1/-1/1/2023_DOD_Cyber_Strategy_Summary.pdf
VIDA Csaba (2013): Létezik-e még a hírszerzési ciklus? (Miről szól a hírszerzés?) Felderítő Szemle, 12(1), 43–57. Online: https://hhk.uni-nke.hu/document/hhk-uni-nke-hu/2013-1.pdf