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European Journal of Women’s Studies, 8(4), 454–471. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/135050680100800404 ANZALDÚA, Gloria E. (2012): La Conciencia de la Mestiza: Towards a New Consciousness. In Borderlands/La frontera. The New Mestiza. San Francisco, CA: Aunt Lute Books, 99–120. BROOK, Barbara (1999): Feminist Perspectives on the Body. [s. l.]: Routledge. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315839554 BUTLER, Judith (2020): The Force of Nonviolence. London – New York: Verso. DAVIS, Kathy (2007): Reclaiming Women’s Bodies: Colonialist Trope or Critical Epistemology? The Sociological Review, 55(1), 50–64. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2007.00692.x DONADEY, Anne (2001): Recasting Postcolonialism: Women Writing Between Worlds. [s. l.]: Heinemann. FIDDIAN-QASMIYEH, Elena (2010): Ideal” Refugee Women And Gender Equality Mainstreaming in the Sahrawi Refugee Camps: “Good Practice” For Whom? Refugee Survey Quarterly, 29(2), 64–84. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/hdq023 FINDEN, Alice (2018): Active Women and Ideal Refugees: Dissecting Gender, Identity and Discourse in the Sahrawi Refugee Camps. Feminist Review, 120(1), 37–53. Online: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41305-018-0139-2 HARAWAY, Donna (1988): Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective. Feminist Studies, 14(3), 575–599. Online: https://doi.org/10.2307/3178066 ISIDOROS, Konstantina (2017): Unveiling the Colonial Gaze: Sahrāwī Women in Nascent Nation-state Formation in the Western Sahara. Interventions, 19(4), 1–20. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801X.2016.1277152 JOLLY, Margaret (1998): Introduction Colonial and Postcolonial Plots in Histories of Maternities and Modernities. In RAM, Kalpana – JOLLY, Margaret (eds.): Maternities and Modernities. Colonial and postcolonial Experiences in Asia and the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–25. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621826.002 JULIANO, Dolores (1998): La Causa Saharaui y Las Mujeres. “Siempre Hemos Sido Muy Libres”. Barcelona: Icaria. KING, Leslie (2002): Demographic Trends, Pronatalism, and Nationalist Ideologies in the Late Twentieth Century. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 25(3), 367–389. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870020036701d KRIDLI, Suha Al-Oballi (2002): Health Beliefs and Practices among Arab Women. MCN The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 27(3), 178–182. Online: https://doi.org/10.1097/00005721-200205000-00010 LIPPERT, Anne (1992), Sahrawi Women in the Liberation Struggle of the Sahrawi People. Signs, 17(3), 636–651. Online: https://doi.org/10.1086/494752 MAHMOOD, Saba (2001): Feminist Theory, Embodiment, and the Docile Agent: Some Reflections on the Egyptian Islamic Revival. Cultural Anthropology, 16(2), 202–236. Online:: https://doi.org/10.1525/can.2001.16.2.202 MANDERSON, Lenore (1998): Shaping Reproduction: Maternity in Early Twentieth-century Malaya’, in RAM, Kalpana – JOLLY, Margaret (eds.): Maternities and Modernities. Colonial and Postcolonial Experiences in Asia and the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 26–50. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621826.003 MEDINA MARTÍN, Rocío (2014a): Construcción de identidades de género y construcción de identidades feministas en las mujeres saharauis en los campamentos de refugiados/asTindouf (Argelia): una lectura desde el feminismo poscolonial. In Libro de Actas del II Congreso Internacional de Comunicación y Género, 890–905. Online: http://hdl.handle.net/11441/36773 MEDINA MARTÍN, Rocío (2014b), El devenir feminista de las mujeres saharauis en los campamentos de refugiados/as en Tindouf (Argelia). In MEDINA MARTÍN, R. – SORIANO DÍAZ, R. L. (eds.): Activismo Académico en la Causa Saharaui: Nuevas Perspectivas Críticas en Derecho, Política y Arte. Aconcagua Libros, 189–216. MEDINA MARTÍN, Rocío (2014c), Mujeres Saharauis, Colonialidad del Género y Nacionalismos: Un acercamiento a partir de los feminismos decoloniales. Relaciones Internacionales, (27), 13–34. Online: https://doi.org/10.15366/relacionesinternacionales2014.27.001 MEDINA MARTÍN, Rocío (2016a): Experiencias e identidades colectivas en las mujeres saharauis desde los feminismos descoloniales. In MEDINA MARTÍN, Rocío (ed.): Mujeres Saharauis: Tres Tuizas para la Memoria de la Resistencia. Aconcagua Libros, 51–70. MEDINA MARTÍN, Rocío (2016b): Mujeres Saharauis: Experiencias de resistencias y agencias en un devenir feminista descolonial. Doctoral Thesis. Universidad Pablo de Olavide. Online: https://www.usc.es/export9/sites/webinstitucional/gl/institutos/ceso/descargas/Ph-D_Medina_mujeres-saharauis_2016.pdf RAM, Kapalma (1998): Epilogue. Maternal Experience and Feminist Body Politics: Asian and Pacific Perspectives. In RAM, Kapalma – JOLLY, Margaret (eds.): Maternities and Modernities. Colonial and Postcolonial Experiences in Asia and the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 279–298. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511621826.011 MORILLO, Manuel Jesús Rodríguez – VAZQUEZ, José Domingo Mateo (2014): Saharauis: de la ciudadanía española a la apatricia. In MARTÍN, Rocío Medina – DÍAZ, Ramón Luis Soriano (eds.): Activismo Académico en la Causa Saharaui: Nuevas Perspectivas Críticas en Derecho, Política y Arte. Aconcagua Libros, 101–124. ROSS, Loretta J. – SOLINGER, Rickie (2017): Reproductive Justice: An Introduction. 1st ed. University of California Press. Online. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctv1wxsth ROSSETTI, Sonia (2011): Gender Mainstreaming in State-building: A Case Study of Saharawi Refugees and Their Foreign Representatives. Master of Arts (Research) thesis, School of History and Politics, University of Wollongong. Online: http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3295 SADR (2015): Protocolo Anticoncepción – PNSSR. WEISS, Gail – HABER, Honi Fern eds. (1999): Perspectives on Embodiment: The Intersections of Nature and Culture (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203905258 YOUNG, Iris Marion (1984): Pregnant Embodiment: Subjectivity and Alienation. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy: A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine, 9(1), 45–62. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/jmp/9.1.45 YUVAL-DAVIS, Nira (1996): Women and the Biological Reproduction of “The Nation”. Women’s Studies International Forum, 9(1–2), 17–24. Online: https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-5395(95)00075-5 YUVAL-DAVIS, Nira (1997): Gender and Nation. London: Sage." 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This paper aims to explore Sahrawi women’s experiences of maternity within the Sahrawi liberation struggle, framing it as both an individual and a collective act of resistance against the occupation of Western Sahara. Rooted in the pronatalist politics of the Sahrawi liberation front’s (Polisario), it investigates how Sahrawi women approach biological reproduction as part of a minority group. Choices of biological reproduction among Sahrawis are inscribed within a history of occupation and refuge that, together with colonialism and nationalism, also shape Sahrawi women’s agency in navigating the socio-political dimensions of reproduction. This paper critically engages with an increasing number of humanitarian interventions in reproductive health, exploring the balance between addressing health concerns and the potential imposition of Western perspectives on biological reproduction. Empirical evidence highlights Sahrawi women’s adaptive strategies within in response to changing realities, emphasising the intricate interplay between reproductive autonomy, collective resistance, and identity.

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object(Publication)#114 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(28) { ["id"]=> int(7367) ["accessStatus"]=> int(0) ["datePublished"]=> string(10) "2024-06-27" ["lastModified"]=> string(19) "2024-06-27 15:19:17" ["primaryContactId"]=> int(9208) ["sectionId"]=> int(67) ["seq"]=> int(2) ["submissionId"]=> int(7243) ["status"]=> int(3) ["version"]=> int(1) ["categoryIds"]=> array(0) { } ["citationsRaw"]=> string(7001) "AKASHI, Junichi (2021): How a Policy Network Matters for Refugee Protection: A Case Study of Japan’s Refugee Resettlement Programme. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 40(3), 249–270. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/hdab001 Amnesty International (2023): Japan: ‘Endless Detention’: Migrants Speak Out as Government Proposes Harsh Immigration Bill. 14 March, 2023. Online: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/japan-endless-detention-migrants-speak-out-as-government-proposes-harsh-immigration-bill/ ANDO, Yukari (2023): Impacts on Refugee Law: Implications for Japanese Law, European Union Law and International Human Rights Law. In FURUYA, Shuichi – TAKEMURA, Hitomi – OZAKI, Kuniko (eds.): Global Impact of the Ukraine Conflict: Perspectives from International Law. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 137–160. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4374-6_7 Burmese Refugee Application Lawyers in Japan (2010): Statement on October 29, 2010. Online: http://www.jlnr.jp/statements/20101029_burmalg_J.pdf BUSCHMANN, Philipp (2021): An Evaluation of the Japanese Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act’s Permissibility under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and Its 1967 Protocol. Journal of Human Security Studies, 10(2), 79–96. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0117196815606852 HATCHER, Pascale – MURAKAMI, Aya (2020): The Politics of Exclusion: Embedded Racism and Japan’s pilot Refugee Resettlement Programme. Race & Class, 62(1), 60–77. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306396820917068 HERRMANN, Therese (2020): Crisis and Willkommenskultur: Civil Society Volunteering for Refugees in Germany. In GOŹDZIAK, Elżbieta M. – MAIN, Izabella – SUTER, Brigitte (eds.): Europe and the Refugee Response. London: Routledge, 201–219. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429279317-13 HORIUCHI, Yusaku – ONO, Yoshikuni (2023): Susceptibility to Threatening Information and Attitudes toward Refugee Resettlement: The Case of Japan. Journal of Peace Research, 60(3), 459–473. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433221079455 HOSOKAWA, Naoko (2021): From Reality to Discourse: Analysis of the ‘Refugee’ Metaphor in the Japanese News Media. Journal of Multicultural Discourses, 16(3), 277–291. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/17447143.2021.1932919 ICHIKAWA, Masao – NAKAHARA, Shinji – WAKAI, Susumu (2006): Effect of Post-Migration Detention on Mental Health among Afghan Asylum Seekers in Japan. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40(4), 341–346. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/j.1440-1614.2006.01800.x Japan: Cabinet Order No. 319 of 1951, Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act, Cabinet Order No. 319 of 1951, 4 October 1951, Online: https://www.refworld.org/legal/legislation/natlegbod/1951/en/122701 JAR (2023a). Online: https://www.refugee.or.jp/en/org/. JAR (2023b): Nihon no Nanmin Nintei ha Naze Sukunaika? Online: https://www.refugee.or.jp/refugee/japan_recog/ KASAI, Teppei (2023): Japan Immigration Law Creates New Obstacles for Asylum Seekers. Human Rights Watch, 14 June, 2023. Online: https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/06/15/japan-immigration-law-creates-new-obstacles-asylum-seekers KITAMURA, Yasuzo (2022): Towards a More Human Rights-Based Refugee Law Reform in Japan. Yonsei Law Journal, 12(1–2), 59–91. LEE, Sang Kook (2018): The State, Ethnic Community, and Refugee Resettlement in Japan. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 53(8), 1219–1234. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618777277 MCGARITY-PALMER, Rebecca – SAW, Anne – KEYS, Chris B. (2023): Community Engagement in Psychosocial Interventions with Refugees from Asia: A Systematic Review. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 14(2), 117–132. Online: https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000285 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (2023): Refugees. Online: https://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/refugee/japan.html Ministry of Justice (Japan) (2022): About the Number of Refugees Recognised in 2022. Online: https://www.moj.go.jp/isa/publications/press/07_00035.html Ministry of Justice (Japan) (2023): Regarding the 2023 Amendments to the Immigration Control Act, etc. Online: https://www.moj.go.jp/isa/laws/05_00036.html MOMIN, Suman (2017): A Human Rights Based Approach to Refugees: A Look at the Syrian Refugee Crisis and the Responses from Germany and the United States. Duke Forum for Law & Social Change, 9(1), 55–79. OHCHR (2023): Comments on Legislation and Policy: Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants. Online: https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=27995 PHILLIMORE, Jenny – MORRICE, Linda – KABE, Kunihiko – HASHIMOTO, Naoko – HASSAN, Sara – REYES, Marisol (2021): Economic Self-reliance or Social Relations? What Works in Refugee Integration? Learning from Resettlement Programmes in Japan and the UK. Comparative Migration Studies, 9(1), 17–35. Online: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-021-00223-7 POHLMANN, Vanessa – SCHWIERTZ, Helge (2020): Private Sponsorship in Refugee Admission: Standard in Canada, Trend in Germany. Research Brief No. 2020/1. Online: https://doi.org/10.32920/ryerson.14638605 SLATER, David H. – BARBARAN, Rose (2020): The Whole Block Goes Down: Refugees in Japan’s Detention Centers during the Pandemic. Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus, 18(5), 1–17. Online: https://apjjf.org/2020/18/slater-barbaran TARUMOTO, Hideki (2019): Why Restrictive Refugee Policy Can be Retained? A Japanese Case. Migration and Development, 8(1), 7–24. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2018.1482642 The Asahi Shimbun (2019): Asylum Seeker Number Drops by Half as Those Successful Double. The Asahi Shimbun, 28 March, 2019. Online: https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/13067700 TIAN, Yunchen (2023): Refugee Rights in Japan are Fading Fast. East Asia Forum, 16 August, 2023. Online: https://doi.org/10.59425/eabc.1692223215 TRIGGS, Gillian D. – WALL, Patrick C. J. (2020): ‘The Makings of a Success’: The Global Compact on Refugees and the Inaugural Global Refugee Forum. International Journal of Refugee Law, 32(2), 283–339. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eeaa024 UNHCR (2004): Representation in Japan, UNHCR Advisory Opinion on the Interpretation of the Refugee Definition, UNHCR, 23 December 2004, Online: https://www.refworld.org/jurisprudence/amicus/unhcr/2004/en/35453 UNHCR (2022): Global Trends Report 2022. Online: https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/global-trends-report-2022.pdf. UNHCR (2023): Bi-annual Fact Sheet 2023 02 Germany. Online: https://www.unhcr.org/media/bi-annual-fact-sheet-2023-02-germany. United Nations General Assembly (2018): Global Compact on Refugees. A/RES/73/151. Online: https://www.unhcr.org/media/global-compact-refugees-booklet WOLMAN, Andrew (2015): Japan and International Refugee Protection Norms: Explaining Non-compliance. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 24(4), 409–431. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0117196815606852" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2024) ["issueId"]=> int(573) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "21-41" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2024.2.2" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(1526) "

The year 2022 marks the 40^th anniversary of the start of Japan’s refugee recognition system. Despite being a prosperous democracy and a staunch supporter of the international system, Japan has consistently admitted only a small number of refugees. According to the Immigration Services Agency of Japan, the number of people recognised as refugees in 2022 reached a record high of 202, while those not recognised exceeded 10,000. Furthermore, the legislative bill to revise the Immigration Control Law, passed by the House of Councillors Judicial Committee on June 8, 2023, limits applications for refugee recognition to twice in principle. From the third application onwards, there is a possibility for forced deportation to the applicants’ home countries. This legislative bill can be seen as violating the human rights of refugees and asylum-seekers, contravening international human rights law, and the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. Therefore, this article specifically explores Japan’s stronger stance on control over protection, whether its low recognition rate indicates non-compliance with international refugee protection criteria, and the reasons behind this. These aspects will be methodically examined, employing rationalist, normative, and domestic institutional theories of international conformity. Finally, the article will suggest measures to improve Japan’s refugee recognition rate and enhance the protection of the human rights of refugees and asylum seekers.

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Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004162938.i-300.49 BONNITCHA, Jonathan – MCCORQUODALE, Robert (2013): Is the Concept of ‘Due Diligence’ in the Guiding Principles Coherent? SSRN Electronic Journal, 29 January, 2013. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2208588 CHINKIN, Christine (1999): A Critique of the Public/Private Dimension. European Journal of International Law, 10(2), 387–395. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/10.2.387 Council of Europe (2020): COVID-19 Pandemic: Tackling the Dramatic Increase in Cases of Violence against Women. Council of Europe Newsroom, 20 April, 2020. Online: https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/covid-19-pandemic-tackling-the-dramatic-increase-in-cases-of-violence-against-women. DE VIDO, Sara (2017): States’ Positive Obligations to Eradicate Domestic Violence: The Politics of Relevance in the Interpretation of the European Convention of Human Rights. European Society of International Law, 6(6) 1, 1–11. GARCÍA-DEL MORAL, Paulina – DERSNAH, Megan Alexandra (2014): A Feminist Challenge to the Gendered Politics of the Public/Private Divide: On Due Diligence, Domestic Violence, and Citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 18(6–7), 661–675. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2014.944772 GOLDSCHEID, Julie – LIEBOWITZ, Debra J. (2015): Due Diligence and Gender Violence: Parsing its Powers and its Perils. Cornell International Law Journal, 48, 301–345. GRANS, Lisa (2018): The Concept of Due Diligence and the Positive Obligation to Prevent Honour-Related Violence: Beyond Deterrence. International Journal of Human Rights, 22(5), 733–755. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2018.1454907 HASSELBACHER, Lee (2010): State Obligations regarding Domestic Violence: European Court of Human Rights, Due Diligence, and International Legal Minimums of Protection. Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights, 8(2), 190–215. International Committee of the Red Cross (2020): Prevention and Response to Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Covid-19 Quarantine Centres. Online: https://gbvguidelines.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Prevention_and_Response_to_SGBV_Quarantine_Centres_COVID-19-ICRC.pdf. KOIVUROVA, Timo – SINGH, Krittika (2010): Due Diligence. Online: https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1034. KRYCZKA, Katarzyna – BECKERS, Sarah – LAMBOOY, Tineke (2012): The Importance of Due Diligence Practices for the Future of Business Practices in Fragile States. European Company Law, 9(2), 125–132. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2083481 MCDONALD, Neil (2019): The Role of Due Diligence in International Law, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 68(4), 1041–1054. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589319000344 MONNHEIMER, Maria (2021): Due Diligence Obligations in International Human Rights Law. Cambridge – New York: Cambridge University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108894784 NTHUSANG, Lefafa (2020): Covid-19 Lockdown Provides Perfect Storm for SA’s GBV Crisis. Health-e News, 29 April, 2020. Online: https://health-e.org.za/2020/04/29/covid-19-lockdown-provides-perfect-storm-for-sas-gbv-crisis/. OHCHR (2009): 15 Years of the UN Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes and Consequences (1994–2009) – A Critical Review. Online: https://www.unwomen.org/en/docs/2009/1/15-years-of-the-un-special-rapporteur-on-violence-against-women. PISILLO-MAZZESCHI, Riccardo (1992): The Due Diligence Rule and the Nature of the International Responsibility of States. German Yearbook of International Law, 35, 9–51. SOUSA GANT, Alda Maria (2002): Domestic Violence against Women as a Human Rights Violation. 3 Revista do Instituto Brasiliero de Direitos Humanos, 3(3), 9–21. STOYANOVA, Vladyslava (2020): Fault, Knowledge and Risk within the Framework of Positive Obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights. Leiden Journal of International Law, 33(3), 601–620. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0922156520000163 THILL, Magally (2014): States’ Duty to Prevent and Eliminate Violence against Women in the European Union. Revista Universitaria Europea, (21), 43–68. United Nations (2006): Ending Violence against Women: From Words to Action. Study of the Secretary-General. Online: https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Media/Publications/UN/en/EnglishStudy.pdf. UN Women (2021): Measuring the Shadow Pandemic: Violence against Women during Covid-19. Online: https://data.unwomen.org/publications/vaw-rga. Treaties and soft law documents CEDAW Committee, General Recommendation No. 35 on Gender-based Violence against Women, Updating General Recommendation No. 19, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/GC/35, 26 July, 2017. CEDAW Committee, Rep. on Mexico produced by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women under art. 8 of the Optional Protocol to the Convention, and reply from the Government of Mexico, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/2005/OP.8/MEXICO, 27 January, 2005. Committee of Ministers (2002): Recommendation on the Protection of Women against Violence. Rec(2002)5. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, adopted on 18 December 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13. Council of Europe (2011): Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence. CETS No. 210, 2011. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, A. Res. 48/104, UN Doc. A/RES/48/104, 20 December, 1993. Organization of American States, Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence of Women, adopted on 9 June 1994, O.A.S.T.S. A No. 61. UNHCR (1989): CEDAW General Recommendation No. 12: Violence against Women. 8th session, 1989. UNHCR (1992): CEDAW General Recommendation No. 19: Violence against Women. UN Doc. A/47/38, 1992. UNHCR (2006): Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Its Causes and Consequences on the Due Diligence Standard as a Tool for the Elimination of Violence against Women, Yakin Ertürk. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2006/61 20 January, 2006. UNHCR (2008): CAT Committee, General Comment No. 2, UN Doc. CAT/C/GC/2, 24 January, 2008. UN General Assembly (2009): Business and Human Rights: Towards Operationalizing the “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework. Rep. of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprise, UN Doc. A/HRC/11/13, 22 April, 2009. UN Human Rights Council (2013): Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Rashida Manjoo. UN Doc. 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Turkey, App. No. 33410/02, 9 June 2009. ECtHR, Osman v. United Kingdom, App. No. 23452/94, 28 October 1998. ECtHR, Tërshana v. Albania, App. No. 48756/14, 4 August 2020. ECtHR, T. M. and C. M. v. the Republic of Moldova, App. No. 26608/11, 28 January 2014. ECtHR, Valiuliené v. Lithuania, App. No. 33234/07, 26 March 2013. IACHR, Access to Justice for Women Victims of Violence in the Americas, OEA/Ser. L/V/II. doc. 68, 20 January 2007. IACHR, Jessica Lenahan (Gonzales) et al v. United States, Case 12.626, Rep. No. 80/11, Merits, 21 July 2011 IACtHR, González et al. (‘Cotton Field’) v. Mexico, Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Costs, Judgment, Ser. C No. 205, 16 November 2009. IACtHR, Hacienda Brasil Verde Workers v. Brasil, Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Costs, Judgment, Ser. C No. 318, 20 October 2016. IACtHR, López Soto v. Venezuela, Merits, Reparations, and Costs, Judgment, Ser. C No. 367, 26 September 2018. IACtHR, Pueblo Bello Massacre v. Colombia, Merits, Reparations, and Costs, Judgment, Ser. C No. 140, 31 January 2006. IACtHR, Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras, Merits, Judgment, Ser. C No. 4, 9 July 1988. IACtHR, Women Victims of Sexual Torture in Atenco v. Mexico, Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations, and Cost, Judgment, Ser. C No. 369, 28 November 2018." ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2024) ["issueId"]=> int(573) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "43-57" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2024.2.3" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(1078) "

Situations of crises such as the Covid–19 pandemic expose the fissures in society, both domestic and global. Using violence against women as an example, the paper shows how structural risks amplify during crises and how the concept of due diligence can be used to address these risks. By focusing on prevention, it analyses the existing approaches towards due diligence in the context of violence against women by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the European Court of Human Rights, the Committee on Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Special Rapporteur on violence against women. The paper looks at how these mechanisms have considered the invocation and applicability of the duty of prevention with due diligence as well as the measures that states need to take to discharge such a duty. It concludes with a reflection on what can be done to further strengthen the arguments of the mechanisms analysed in this paper to utilise the full potential of due diligence concerning state obligations towards the prevention of violence against women.

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University of Miami International & Comparative Law Review, 13(2), 293–341. Online: https://repository.law.miami.edu/umiclr/vol13/iss2/2 DUBNER, Barry Hart – OTHERO, Brian (2016): The Human Rights of Sea Pirates: Will the European Court of Human Rights Decisions Get More Killed? Washington University Global Studies Law Review, 15(2), 215–254. DUTTON, Yvonne (2012): Maritime Piracy and the Impunity Gap: Insufficient National Laws or a Lack of Political Will? Tulane Law Review, 86(5), 1111–1162. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1931870 GALANI, Sofia (2017): The Human Rights and Maritime Law Implications of a Piracy Ransom Ban for International Shipping (2017) Maritime Safety and Security Journal, (3), 22–46. GERVASI, Phil (2023): Diving Deep into Submarine Cables: The Undersea Lifelines of Internet Connectivity. Kentik.com, 28 March, 2023. Online: https://www.kentik.com/blog/diving-deep-into-submarine-cables-undersea-lifelines-of-internet-connectivity/#:~:text=There%20are%20approximately%201.4%20million,cable%20at%2045%2C000%20km%20long GUILFOYLE, Douglas (2010a): Counter-Piracy Law Enforcement and Human Rights. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 59(1), 141–169. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S002058930999011X GUILFOYLE, Douglas (2010b): ECHR Rights at Sea: Medvedyev and others v. France. EJIL Talk! April 19, 2010. Online: https://www.ejiltalk.org/echr-rights-at-sea-medvedyev-and-others-v-france/ GUILFOYLE, Douglas (2015): Piracy and Terrorism. In KOUTRAKOS, Panos – SKORDAS, Achilles (eds.): The Law and Practice of Piracy at Sea. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 33–52. KARIM, Saiful (2017): Maritime Terrorism and the Role of Judicial Institutions in the International Legal Order. Leiden: Brill. Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004329294 KONTOROVICH, Eugene (2012): The Penalties for Piracy: An Empirical Study of National Prosecution of International Crime. Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons, Faculty Working Papers, 1–20. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2099631 KISS, Amarilla (2010): Treating a Symptom or Curing an Illness? Somalia behind the Scenes of Piracy. Iasi Journal of Legal Studies, 5(1–2), 143–153. LAKOTTA, Beate (2011): German Justice through the Eyes of a Somali Pirate. Der Spiegel, 7 April, 2011. Online: https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/torture-execution-german-justice-through-the-eyes-of-a-somali-pirate-a-755340.html MANUSAMA, Kenneth (2010): Prosecuting Pirates in the Netherlands: The Case of the MS Samanyolu. Military Law and Law of War Review, 49(1–2), 141–163. Online: https://doi.org/10.4337/mllwr.2010.1-2.08 PETRIG, Anna – GEISS, Robin (2011): Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ROXSTROM, Erik – GIBNEY, Mark – EINARSEN, Terje (2005): The NATO Bombing Case (Bankovic et al. vs. Belgium et al.) and the Limits of Western Human Rights Protection. Boston University International Law, 23, 55–136. Online: https://www.bu.edu/law/journals-archive/international/volume23n1/documents/55-136.pdf SYMINGTON, Adam (2024): Charting the Depths: The World of Subsea Cables. Visual Capitalist, 22 September, 2023. Online: https://www.visualcapitalist.com/cp/charting-the-depths-the-world-of-subsea-cables/#:~:text=Data%20may%20be%20stored%20in,95%25%20of%20international%20data%20transmission TREVES, Tullio (2010): Human Rights and the Law of the Sea. Berkeley Journal of International Law, 28(1), 1–14. UNCTAD [s. a.]: Review of Maritime Transport. Online: https://unctad.org/topic/transport-and-trade-logistics/review-of-maritime-transport UNCTAD (2023): Review of Maritime Transport 2023. 27 September, 2023. Online: https://unctad.org/publication/review-maritime-transport-2023 International treaties, regulations Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (10 March 1988, Rome) Council Decision 2009/293/CFSP of 26 February 2009 concerning the Exchange of Letters between the European Union and the Government of Kenya on the conditions and modalities for the transfer of persons suspected of having committed acts of piracy and detained by the European Union-led naval force (EUNAVFOR), and seized property in the possession of EUNAVFOR, from EUNAVFOR to Kenya and for their treatment after such transfer Draft articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations (2011) European Convention on Human Rights (1950, Rome) Geneva Convention relating to the Status of Refugees (28 July 1951, Geneva) Geneva Declaration on Human Rights at Sea, (30 January2024, Geneva) United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (20 December 1988, Vienna) United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea (10 December 1982, Montego Bay) Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (1961, Vienna) Cases Ali Samatar and Others v. 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We live in a world where we face countless crises and directly experience armed conflicts. The seas, such as the Red Sea, the Black Sea, and South China Sea hold strategic importance in these crises and conflicts. The sea is a unique and challenging environment, considering both its distinct physical characteristics and the jurisdictional issues. At sea, human rights can be compromised in various ways, and these cases often go unreported or they lack sufficient public awareness. It is also an expansive area to monitor, and the effectiveness of the police or military forces is sometimes hindered by limited resources or the reluctance to take action due to the non-compliance with legal regulations. It is the responsibility of the international community to encourage the authorities to prosecute the perpetrators by establishing a legal framework that effectively safeguards human rights and can be enforced by state authorities. This paper aims to explore the challenges of enforcing human rights during the arrest and detention process in cases of transnational crimes or violations of international law, such as piracy, terrorism, and drug trafficking committed on sea, involving the case law of the European Court of Human Rights.

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We live in a world where we face countless crises and directly experience armed conflicts. The seas, such as the Red Sea, the Black Sea, and South China Sea hold strategic importance in these crises and conflicts. The sea is a unique and challenging environment, considering both its distinct physical characteristics and the jurisdictional issues. At sea, human rights can be compromised in various ways, and these cases often go unreported or they lack sufficient public awareness. It is also an expansive area to monitor, and the effectiveness of the police or military forces is sometimes hindered by limited resources or the reluctance to take action due to the non-compliance with legal regulations. It is the responsibility of the international community to encourage the authorities to prosecute the perpetrators by establishing a legal framework that effectively safeguards human rights and can be enforced by state authorities. This paper aims to explore the challenges of enforcing human rights during the arrest and detention process in cases of transnational crimes or violations of international law, such as piracy, terrorism, and drug trafficking committed on sea, involving the case law of the European Court of Human Rights.

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Online: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/10/indigenous-women-speak-out-at-cop26-rally-femicide-is-linked-to-ecocide BROWN, Bartram (2011): International Criminal Law: Nature, Origins and a Few Key Issues. In BROWN, Bartram (ed.): Research Handbook on International Criminal Law. [s. l.]: Edward Elgar, 3–16. Online: https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857933225.00008 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2018): Climate change and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Statement. Committee on the Rights of the Child (2021): Decision adopted by the Committee on the Rights of the Child under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a Communications Procedure in Respect of Communication No. 104/2019. Convention on the prohibition of military or any other hostile use of environmental modification techniques (ENMOD) 1976 (1978) UNTS vol. 1108, p. 151 Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 (1990). 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E/CN.4/Sub.2/1994/9 LINDÉN, Olof – JERNELÖV, Arne – EGERUP, Johanna (2004): The Environmental Impacts of the Gulf War 1991. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Interim Report IR-04-019. Online: https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/7427/1/IR-04-019.pdf Loi no 2021-1104 du 22 août 2021 portant lutte contre le dérèglement climatique et renforcement de la résilience face à ses effets, Journal officiel électronique authentifié n° 0196 du 24/08/2021. LYTTON, Christopher H. (2000): Environmental Human Rights: Emerging Trends in International Law and Ecocide. Environmental Claims Journal, 13(1), 73–91. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/10406020009355152 MWANZA, Rosemary (2023): Symposium on UN Recognition of the Human Right to a Healthy Environment. The Right to a Healthy Environment as a Catalyst for the Codification of the Crime of Ecocide. American Journal of International Law Unbound, 117, 189–193. 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Online: https://ias.jak.ppke.hu/20212sz/06_SziebigOJ_IAS_2021_2.pdf SZIEBIG, Orsolya Johanna (2022): Ökocídium az uniós jogban ‒ eddigi történések és lehetséges szcenáriók. EU Jog, 2(3). TAHYNÉ KOVÁCS, Ágnes (2022): Az éghajlatváltozás emberi jogokra gyakorolt hatásairól, különös tekintettel az élelemhez való jogra. Acta Humana – Emberi Jogi Közlemények, 10(2), 93–123. Online: https://doi.org/10.32566/ah.2022.2.6 TECLAFF, Ludwik A. (1991): Beyond Restoration – The Case of Ecocide. Natural Resources Journal, 34(4), 933–956. Online: https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/nrj/vol34/iss4/6 UN Human Rights Committee (2019): International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, General comment No. 36 CCPR/C/GC/36 UN Human Rights Council (2021): Promotion and Protection of All Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Including the Right to Development. A/HRC/48/L.23/Rev.1 VON ARNAULD, Andreas – THEILEN, Jens T. (2020): Rhetoric of Rights. In VON ARNAULD, Andreas – VON DER DECKEN, Kerstin – SUSI, Mart (eds.): The Cambridge Handbook of New Human Rights: Recognition, Novelty, Rhetoric. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 34–50. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108676106.004" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2024) ["issueId"]=> int(573) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "75-89" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2024.2.5" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(1706) "

The environment is often called the “silent victim of war” – the case is not different in the Russo–Ukrainian armed conflict. Since 2014, nature − home to 35% of European biodiversity and varied natural habitats − has suffered a tremendous loss in Ukraine. The war has been responsible for the emission of 33 m tonnes of CO₂ , and postwar reconstruction is estimated to generate even more. Additional environmental concerns include extensive pollution, degradation of natural habitats, and species extinction. Regarding the new data, more than 2 thousand events can be considered ecocide. Ecocide is the destruction of the natural environment by deliberate or negligent human action. Transboundary environmental harm is also a pressing issue, as pollution “travels” by wind, air, and water to other countries. Ecocide is a new yet old concept concerning severe environmental destruction. In the last decade, a debate has emerged concerning legislation, definition and enforcement. Instead of international criminal law, many believe that the solution will be the human rights approach. Meanwhile, the right to a healthy environment, initially not included in “traditional” human rights conventions, is getting more attention worldwide and in Europe. Recently, the European Economic and Social Committee adopted an own-initiative opinion on the right to a healthy environment in the EU in the context of the war. The aim is to criminalise Russia’s actions under European law and ensure environmental protection to safeguard fundamental rights. In the paper, the author would like to focus on the parallel development of the right to a healthy environment and ecocide.

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European Journal of International Law, 23(3), 613–642. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chs054 BRADSHAW, Karen (2020): Wildlife as Property Owners: A New Conception of Animal Rights. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226571539.001.0001 BRUCKERHOFF, Joshua (2008): Giving Nature Constitutional Protection: A Less Anthropocentric Interpretation of Environmental Rights. Texas Law Review, 86(3), 615–646. BURGER, Michael – GUNDLACH, Justin (2017): The Status of Climate Change Litigation: A Global Review Columbia Public Law Research Paper. Online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3364568 European Commission (2021a): Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions ‘Fit for 55’: Delivering the EU's 2030 Climate Target on the Way to Climate Neutrality. COM/2021/550 final. 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Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511596766.008 SULYOK, Katalin (2013): A tudományos bizonytalanság forrásai és szerepe a természet- és környezetvédelmi döntések ökológiai megalapozhatóságában [Sources of Scientific Uncertainty and Its Role in the Ecological Justification of Nature and Environmental Decisions]. Természetvédelmi Közlemények, 19, 62–73. SULYOK, Katalin (2020): A klímaperek kihívásai és sikerei – az urgenda-ítélet tanulságai [The Challenges and Successes of Climate Change – Lessons from the Urgenda Judgment]. Közjogi Szemle, 2020/1, 1–7. Online: https://orac.hu/pdf/KJSZ_202001_1-7o_SulyokKatalin.pdf STAKER, Alexia (2017): Should Chimpanzees Have Standing? The Case for Pursuing Legal Personhood for Non-Human Animals. Transnational Environmental Law, 6(3), 485–507. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S204710251700019X United Nations (1992): United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. United Nations, FCCC/INFORMAL/84 GE. 05-62220 (E) 200705. 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Native Vill. Of Kivalina v. ExxonMobile Corp., 696 F.3d 849, 853 (9th Cir. 2012) Neubauer, et al. v. Germany case Notre Affaire à Tous and Others v. France Urgenda Foundation v. The State of the Netherlands (Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment), First instance decision, HA ZA 13-1396, C/09/456689, ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2015:7145, ILDC 2456 (NL 2015), 24th June 2015, Netherlands; The Hague; District Court." ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2024) ["issueId"]=> int(573) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(6) "91-103" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2024.2.6" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(738) "

The last decade has seen an increase in the number, specificity and importance of laws codifying national and international responses to climate change. As these laws have recognised new rights and created new obligations, they have led to the initiation of lawsuits challenging either their effectiveness or their concrete application. The aim of these disputes is to force legislators and policy makers to take a more ambitious and thorough approach to climate change. In addition, litigation has continued to fill the gaps left by legislative and regulatory inaction. As a result, the courts are increasingly adjudicating disputes over actions – or inaction – in relation to climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts.

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Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-3615-7_43 GIORGETTI, Chiara – RATNER, Steven – DUNOFF, Jeffrey – HAMAMOTO, Shotaro – NOTTAGE, Luke – SCHILL, Stephan W. – WAIBEL, Michael (2020): Independence and Impartiality of Adjudicators in Investment Dispute Settlement: Assessing Challenges and Reform Options. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, 21(2–3), 441–474. Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340178 CHIDEDE, Talkmore (2017): Investment Policy Reforms in Africa: How Can They Be Synchronised? Tralac.org, 2017. Online: https://www.tralac.org/discussions/article/11779-investment-policy-reforms-in-africa-how-can-they-be-synchronised.html CHOUDHURY, Barnali (2013): International Investment Law as a Global Public Good. Lewis & Clark Law Review, 17(2), 481–520. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2181414 DANI, Mojtaba – AKHTAR-KHAVARI, Afshin (2018): Rethinking the Use of Deference in Investment Arbitration: New Solutions against the Perception of Bias. UCLA Journal of International Law and Foreign Affairs, 22(1), 37–69. Online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/45302398 DAVITTI, Daria (2012): On the Meanings of International Investment Law and International Human Rights Law: The Alternative Narrative of Due Diligence. Human Rights Law Review, 12(3), 421–453. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngs013 DE BRABANDERE, Eric (2018): (Re) Calibration, Standard-Setting and the Shaping of Investment Law and Arbitration. Boston College Law Review, 59(8), 2607. Online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3681449 DIAMOND, Nicholas J. – DUGGAL, Kabir AN (2021): Adding New Ingredients to an Old Recipe: Do ISDS Reforms and New Investment Treaties Support Human Rights? Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, 53(1), 117–162. Online: https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/jil/vol53/iss1/7 GARCIA, Frank J. – CIKO, Lindita – GAURAV, Apurv – HOUGH, Kirrin (2015): Reforming the International Investment Regime: Lessons from International Trade Law. 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Brill Research Perspectives in International Investment Law and Arbitration, 2(1), 1–86. Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/24055778-12340004 MARKERT, Lars – TITI, Catherine (2015): States Strike Back – Old and New Ways for Host States to Defend against Investment Arbitrations. In BJORKLUND, Andrea K. (ed.): Yearbook on International Investment Law & Policy 2013–2014. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 401–435. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4133289 MAUPIN, Julie A (2013): Transparency in International Investment Law: The Good, the Bad, and the Murky. In BIANCHI, Andrea – PETERS, Anne (eds.): Transparency in International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 142–171. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139108843.009 MERCURIO, Bryan (2015): Safeguarding Public Welfare?—Intellectual Property Rights, Health and the Evolution of Treaty Drafting in International Investment Agreements. Journal of International Dispute Settlement, 6(2), 252–276. 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Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/icsidreview/siu001 ROBERTS, Anthea – ST JOHN, Taylor (2022c): UNCITRAL and ISDS Reform: What to Expect When You’re Expecting. Ejiltalk.org, 5 October, 2022. Online: https://www.ejiltalk.org/uncitral-and-isds-reform-what-to-expect-when-youre-expecting ROBERTS, Anthea (2018): Incremental, Systemic, and Paradigmatic Reform of Investor-State Arbitration. American Journal of International Law, 112(3), 410–432. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/ajil.2018.69 SACHETIM, Henrique – CODECO, Rafael (2019): The Investor-State Dispute Settlement System amidst Crisis, Collapse, and Reform. Arbitration Brief, 6(1), 20–59. SAUVANT, Karl P. (2016): The Evolving International Investment Law and Policy Regime: Ways Forward, 3–47. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2721465 SHAN, Wenhua (2015): The Case for a Multilateral or Plurilateral Framework on Investment. Columbia Center on Sustainable Investment (CCSI), Columbia FDI Perspectives, No. 161. 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Oxford and Portland: Hart Publishing. SUPNIK, Kate M. (2009): Making Amends: Amending the ICSID Convention to Reconcile Competing Interests in International Investment Law. Duke Law Journal, 343–376. Online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20684807 TOUZET, Justine – VIENOT DE VAUBLANC, Marine (2018): The Investor-State Dispute Settlement System: The Road to Overcoming Criticism. Kluwerarbitration.com, 6 August 2018. Online: https://arbitrationblog.kluwerarbitration.com/2018/08/06/the-investor-state-dispute-settlement-system-the-road-to-overcoming-criticism UN (1966): Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States. Un.org, 17 October, 1966. Online: https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=080000028012a925 UNCITRAL (2017a): Report of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) (50th Session) (3–21 July, 2017), General Assembly Official Records Seventy-second Session Supplement No. 17, UN Doc. A/71/17. 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Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5744-2_69-1 ZÁRATE, José Manuel Álvarez – BALTAG, Crina – BEHN, Daniel – BONNITCHA, Jonathan – DE LUCA, Anna – HESTERMEYER, Holger – LANGFORD, Malcolm – MISTELIS, Loukas – RODRÍGUEZ, Clara López – SHAFFER, Gregory – WEBER, Simon (2020): Duration of Investor-State Dispute Settlement Proceedings. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, 21(2–3), 300–335. Online: https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340174 ZHU, Ying (2018): Fair and Equitable Treatment of Foreign Investors in an Era of Sustainable Development. Natural Resources Journal, 58(2), 319–364. Online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26509981 Cases CMS Gas Transmission Company v. The Republic of Argentina (2001), ICSID Case No. ARB/01/8 Enron Corporation and Ponderosa Assets, L.P. v. Argentine Republic (2001), ICSID Case No. ARB/01/3 Lone Pine Resources Inc. v. The Government of Canada (2013), ICSID Case No. UNCT/15/2 LG&E Energy Corp., LG&E Capital Corp., and LG&E International, Inc .v. Argentine Republic (2002), ICSID Case No. ARB/02/1 Philip Morris Asia Limited v. The Commonwealth of Australia (2011), UNCITRAL, PCA Case No. 2012-12 Philip Morris Brands Sàrl, Philip Morris Products S.A. and Abal Hermanos S.A. v. Oriental Republic of Uruguay (2010), ICSID Case No. ARB/10/7 Sempra Energy International v. The Argentine Republic (2002), ICSID Case No. ARB/02/16. Urbaser S.A. and Consorcio de Aguas Bilbao Bizkaia, Bilbao Biskaia Ur Partzuergoa v. The Argentine Republic (2007), ICSID Case No. ARB/07/26 Vattenfall AB, Vattenfall Europe AG, Vattenfall Europe Generation AG v. Federal Republic of Germany (2009), ICSID Case No. ARB/09/6" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2024) ["issueId"]=> int(573) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(7) "105-121" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32566/ah.2024.2.7" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(1120) "

The normative structure of international investment law is highly asymmetrical. Generally, current IIAs grant investors significant substantive and procedural rights, while States and affected communities often lack equivalent safeguard. In recent years, scholars have critcised and identified many problems including human rights concerns ingrained in the international investment law framework. The States and other stakeholders also raised many concerns regarding international investment agreements and investor-State dispute settlement. Moreover, there’s agreement on the need for comprehensive reform of IIL to make ISDS effective. Yet, issues with ISDS go beyond systemic flaws, also entrenched in substantive deficiencies in existing IIAs. Furthermore, the current legitimacy crisis provides a unique chance to amend the international IIAs comprehensively. However, the WGIII and ICSID reform initiative primarily focuses on procedural aspects of ISDS, avoiding substantive issues raised by various stakeholders. While procedural reforms are essential, resolving substantive issues is equally necessary.

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Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511511271.005 ALETRAS, Nikolaos – TSARAPATSANIS, Dimitrios – PREOŢIUC-PIETRO, Daniel – LAMPOS, Vasileos (2016): Predicting Judicial Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights: A Natural Language Processing Perspective. PeerJ Computer Science, 24 October, 2016. Online: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.93 ALOTABI, Hajed E. (2021): The Challenges of Execution of Islamic Criminal Law in Developing Muslim Countries: An Analysis Based on Islamic Principles and Existing Legal System. Cogent Social Sciences, 7(1), 1–13. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2021.1925413 ALSTON, Philip – MÉGRET, Frédéric (2020): Appraising the United Nations Human Rights Regime. In ALSTON, Philip – MÉGRET, Frédéric (eds.): The United Nations and Human Rights: A Critical Appraisal. Second Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198298373.001.0001 AUST, Anthony (2007): Handbook of International Law. Second Edition. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1163/15736512-90000039 BOSTROM, Nick (2005): A History of Transhumanist Thought. Journal of Evolution and Technology 14(1), 1–30. Online: https://nickbostrom.com/papers/history.pdf BROADBENT, Meredith (2021): What’s Ahead for a Cooperative Regulatory Agenda on Artificial Intelligence? Center for Strategic and International Studies. Online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep30085 BRYSON, Joanna J. – DIAMANTIS, Mihailis E. – GRANT, Thomas D. (2017): Of, For, and By the People: The Legal Lacuna of Synthetic Persons. Artificial Intelligence and Law, 25, 273–291. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-017-9214-9 BURRI, Thomas (2017): International Law and Artificial Intelligence. German Yearbook of International Law, 60, 91–108. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3060191 CAHAI (2019): Council of Europe Ad Hoc Committee on Artificial Intelligence, CM(2019)131 from 11 September 2019 to 31 December 2021. Online: https://rm.coe.int/cahai-2020-2021-rev-en-pdf/16809fc157 CATALETA, Maria Stefania (2021): Humane Artificial Intelligence – The Fragility of Human Rights Facing AI. Humane Artificial Intelligence, Working Paper No 2. COULSON, Noel (1994): A History of Islamic Law. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Online: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781474465892 ÇALI, Başak – MADSEN, Mikael Rask – VILJOEN, Frans (2018): Comparative Regional Human Rights Regimes: Defining a Research Agenda. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 16(1). Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3109530 CHESTERMAN, Simon (2020): Artificial Intelligence and the Limits of Legal Personality. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 69(4), 819–844. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020589320000366 European Commission (2021): Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Laying Down Harmonized Rules on Artificial Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) and Amending Certain Union Legislative Acts. Brussels, 21 April 2021, COM(2021) 206 final, 2021/0106(COD). Online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A52021PC0206 FJELD, Jessica – ACHTEN, Nele – HILLIGOSS, Hannah – NAGY, Adam Christopher – SRIKUMAR, Madhulika (2020): Principled Artificial Intelligence: Mapping Consensus in Ethical and Rights-based Approaches to Principles for AI. Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society Research. Online: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3518482 FLORIDI, Luciano – COWLS, Josh – BELTRAMETTI, Monica – CHATILA, Raja – CHAZERAND, Patrice – DIGNUM, Virginia – LUETGE, Christoph – MADELIN, Robert – PAGALLO, Ugo – ROSSI, Francesca – SCHAFER, Burkhard – VALCKE, Peggy – VAYENA, Effy (2018): AI4People – An Ethical Framework for a Good AI Society: Opportunities, Risks, Principles, and Recommendations. Minds and Machines, 689–707. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11023-018-9482-5 FRANKE, Ulrike (2019): Harnessing Artificial Intelligence. European Council on Foreign Relations. Online: https://ecfr.eu/publication/harnessing_artificial_intelligence/ FUKUDA-PARR, Sakiko – GIBBONS, Elizabeth (2021): Emerging Consensus on ‘Ethical AI’: Human Rights Critique of Stakeholder Guidelines. Global Policy, 12(s6), 32–44. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12965 GROMOVA, Elizabeta A. – KONEVA, Natalia S. – TITOVA, Elena V. (2022): Legal Barriers to the Implementation of Digital industry (Industry 4.0) Components and Ways to Overcome them. The Journal of World Intellectual Property, 25(1), 186–205. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/jwip.12215 HÁRS, András (2022): AI and International Law: Legal Personality and Avenues for Regulation. Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies, 62(4), 320–344. Online: https://doi.org/10.1556/2052.2022.00352 LIVINGSTON, Steven – RISSE, Mathias (2019): The Future Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Humans and Human Rights, Ethics and International Affairs, 33(2), 151–153. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S089267941900011X MEDVEDEVA, Masha – VOLS, Michel – WIELING, Martijn (2020): Using Machine Learning to Predict Decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. Artificial Intelligence and Law, 28, 237–266. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-019-09255-y NASH, Lesley (2019): Advancing Artificial Intelligence and Global Society: International Law’s Role in Governing the Advance of Artificial Intelligence. Kentucky Law Journal, 108, 1–15. Online: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5d28bbdff1b73800019f9a52/t/5dc9f63e344d941b579f09ec/1573516862439/Nash+Note+Final.pdf OECD (2019): OECD Recommendation of the Council on Artificial Intelligence, OECD/LEGAL/0449, 22 May 2019. Online: https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0449 OPDERBECK, David W. (2021): Artificial Intelligence, Rights and the Virtues. Washburn Law Journal, 60(3), 470–472. SANTOW, Edward (2020): Can Artificial Intelligence be Trusted with Our Human Rights? Australian Quarterly, 91(4), 10–17. SHAW, Malcolm (2003): International Law. Fifth Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. UNESCO (2021): UNESCO Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence, No. 61910, 23 November 2021. Online: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000380455 United Nations (1948): Universal Declaration of Human Rights. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 217 A (III), Paris, 10 December 1948. United Nations (1966a): International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Preamble, New York, 16 December 1966, UNTC Reg. No. 14668. United Nations (1966b): International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Art. 6, New York, 16 December 1966, UNTC Reg. No. 14531. XU, Ni – WANG, Kung-Jeng (2019): Adopting Robot Lawyer? The Extending Artificial Intelligence Robot Lawyer Technology Acceptance Model for Legal Industry by an Exploratory Study. Journal of Management and Organization, 27(5), 867–885. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2018.81 Case Roe v. Wade 410 U.S. 113 (1973) and Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization No. 19-1392 (2022)." 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Artificial intelligence has been seeping into various fields of international law for some time, affecting fields such as international humanitarian law – especially regarding the legality of autonomous weapon systems, but also intellectual property law and the legal profession as a whole. A conflicting zone encompassing many subfields is human rights, where an already sensitive subject that is open to debates and interpretation is met with rough questions. For instance, should and could human rights norms be transferred into pre-programmed entities? What relevance can human rights have to a non-human being that has been created, programmed and assembled by humans? Vast regional differences exist between the European, African and Inter-American systems with a lack of coherent structure in the Asia-Pacific region. Our understanding of human rights has also developed substantially over the decades, especially regarding norms on slavery, free speech, the prohibition of discrimination and the rights of women, of disabled persons and indigenous peoples to name a few examples. Furthermore, a vast array of international documents on human rights are political manifestos utilising expressions such as “respecting” and “ensuring” human rights as obligations for members of the international community. Since these provisions deliberately leave a lot of room for interpretation, it seems almost an impossible task to translate them to “binary code”, to a format that is digestible for an artificial entity. The article aims to answer these questions by analysing the abovementioned line of thought and combining it with various attempts at international regulation by states, international organisations as well as non-governmental organisations and think-tanks. The fundamental focus of this paper is to ascertain whether human rights and AI can be made compatible under the current framework of international law at today’s level of development.

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This article delves into the intersection of sovereign debt restructurings with human rights. It emphasises that, in disputes under international law, States often omit to raise arguments concerning how adverse judgments could potentially harm the economic, social, and cultural rights of their citizens. The article also draws attention to the applicable law approach of some arbitral tribunals and the behaviour of certain holdouts, explaining how they can also contribute to this ecosystem. Ultimately, it is argued that the current hard-law international architecture is neither optimal nor encouraging to robustly link sovereign debt restructurings and human rights. To this end, the article recommends that these processes be guided by certain general principles of law. These principles, considered sources of international law, should be infused with international human rights law nuances. Rather than advocating for an overhaul, suggestions are made to refine the existing international legal framework and better suit human rights in sovereign debt restructurings.

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