Data protection legislation in the European Union is undergoing a profound reform. The legislative procedure has been in progress for several years. The Juncker Commission has taken office, and it is hoped that the data protection package will soon be approved. The proposal includes numerous positive elements, like the precise definition of key provisions, or new institutions like data protection impact assessment in cases when privacy is especially at stake. The idea of a one stop shop is under harsh criticism, and rightly so.
The authors suggest transposing a couple of elements of the proposal before the new EU data protection package comes into use. This would not only result in the enhancement of data protection in Hungary but also in developing European practice in the field.
" } ["copyrightHolder"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["prefix"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["subtitle"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["title"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(49) "Hol tart az Európai Unió adatvédelmi reformja?" } ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["authors"]=> array(2) { [0]=> object(Author)#761 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(3248) ["email"]=> string(19) "noreply@ludovika.hu" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(2877) ["seq"]=> int(1) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(11) "Péterfalvi" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(6) "Attila" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } [1]=> object(Author)#739 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(3249) ["email"]=> string(19) "noreply@ludovika.hu" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(2877) ["seq"]=> int(1) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(6) "Szabó" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(13) "Endre Győző" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } ["keywords"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> array(2) { [0]=> string(14) "European Union" [1]=> string(22) "data protection reform" } } ["subjects"]=> array(0) { } ["disciplines"]=> array(0) { } ["languages"]=> array(0) { } ["supportingAgencies"]=> array(0) { } ["galleys"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(ArticleGalley)#773 (7) { ["_submissionFile"]=> NULL ["_data"]=> array(9) { ["submissionFileId"]=> int(8141) ["id"]=> int(2014) ["isApproved"]=> bool(false) ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["label"]=> string(3) "PDF" ["publicationId"]=> int(2877) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["urlPath"]=> string(0) "" ["urlRemote"]=> string(0) "" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(true) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) }The Legislative Support of Circulation and Processing of Personal Data in the Social Networks in Ukraine: Current State and the Prospects of Development
‘Permeability’ is one of the most important characteristics of state boundaries. In order to conceptualize the problem, the article tries to distinguish three subtypes of state boundaries. The first one is the barrier that can be indentified with the so-called permanently closed boundaries (e.g. the Iron Curtain). In the case of semipermeable boundaries, the filter and the contact functions of the boundary are balanced. Finally, the dominance of contact functions can lead to completely open boundaries. The main conclusion of our investigation is that the geometrically defined border lines of the modern state has recently become not only more and more open, but changed into a special postmodern frontier, joining different contact zones on the opposite sides of state boundaries.
" } ["copyrightHolder"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["prefix"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["subtitle"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["title"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(73) "Az államhatárok átjárhatóságáról – politikai földrajzi vázlat" } ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["authors"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(Author)#116 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(3254) ["email"]=> string(19) "noreply@ludovika.hu" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(2879) ["seq"]=> int(3) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(6) "Buskó" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(14) "Tibor László" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } ["keywords"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> array(2) { [0]=> string(12) "Permeability" [1]=> string(16) "state boundaries" } } ["subjects"]=> array(0) { } ["disciplines"]=> array(0) { } ["languages"]=> array(0) { } ["supportingAgencies"]=> array(0) { } ["galleys"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(ArticleGalley)#791 (7) { ["_submissionFile"]=> NULL ["_data"]=> array(9) { ["submissionFileId"]=> int(8147) ["id"]=> int(2018) ["isApproved"]=> bool(false) ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["label"]=> string(3) "PDF" ["publicationId"]=> int(2879) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["urlPath"]=> string(0) "" ["urlRemote"]=> string(0) "" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(true) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) }The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 16 sets that the family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State. According to Article 23, everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. In accordance with Article 25, everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. The Declaration highlights that motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
Today there is no question that families with children should be given extra support, however, either family policy includes different elements in each country or the family support system emphasizes different elements. In Hungary the antecedents of the measures by which the state supports families with children appeared at the beginning of the 1900s; and in the middle of the 20th century every element of today’s family support system developed. This paper presents the difficulties in determining the definition of family support and the theories that argue for the maintenance of public family support system.
" } ["title"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> string(48) "Gondolatok a családok állami támogatásáról" } ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["authors"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(Author)#774 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(3256) ["email"]=> string(19) "noreply@ludovika.hu" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(2880) ["seq"]=> int(4) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(7) "Kristó" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(7) "Katalin" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } ["keywords"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> array(2) { [0]=> string(14) "family support" [1]=> string(37) "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" } } ["subjects"]=> array(0) { } ["disciplines"]=> array(0) { } ["languages"]=> array(0) { } ["supportingAgencies"]=> array(0) { } ["galleys"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(ArticleGalley)#793 (7) { ["_submissionFile"]=> NULL ["_data"]=> array(9) { ["submissionFileId"]=> int(8155) ["id"]=> int(2022) ["isApproved"]=> bool(false) ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["label"]=> string(3) "PDF" ["publicationId"]=> int(2880) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["urlPath"]=> string(0) "" ["urlRemote"]=> string(0) "" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(true) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) }Gazdasági, szociális és kulturális jogok nemzetközi egyezségokmánya 12. számú általános kommentár – A megfelelő élelemhez való jog (11. cikkely) (Huszadik ülésszak, 1999)
The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was adopted in 1966 by the United Nations. This covenant is the source of numerous fundamental rights. The Covenant became the part of the Hungarian legal system with the Decree Law 9 of 1976. The Economic and Social Council issues authentic interpretations in General Comments with respect to fundamental rights contained in certain articles of the Covenant. General Comment No. 12 on the right to food examines this fundamental right which is the part of the third generation of the fundamental rights. This present translation aims to provide an easier accessibility to this legal document in Hungarian.
" } ["copyrightHolder"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["prefix"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["subtitle"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(114) "12. számú általános kommentár – A megfelelő élelemhez való jog (11. cikkely) (Huszadik ülésszak, 1999)" } ["title"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(74) "Gazdasági, szociális és kulturális jogok nemzetközi egyezségokmánya" } ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["authors"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(Author)#770 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(3257) ["email"]=> string(19) "noreply@ludovika.hu" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(2882) ["seq"]=> int(5) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(10) "T. Kovács" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(6) "Júlia" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } ["keywords"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> array(4) { [0]=> string(22) "International Covenant" [1]=> string(15) "Cultural Rights" [2]=> string(13) "Social Rights" [3]=> string(15) "Economic rights" } } ["subjects"]=> array(0) { } ["disciplines"]=> array(0) { } ["languages"]=> array(0) { } ["supportingAgencies"]=> array(0) { } ["galleys"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(ArticleGalley)#795 (7) { ["_submissionFile"]=> NULL ["_data"]=> array(9) { ["submissionFileId"]=> int(8152) ["id"]=> int(2020) ["isApproved"]=> bool(false) ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["label"]=> string(3) "PDF" ["publicationId"]=> int(2882) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["urlPath"]=> string(0) "" ["urlRemote"]=> string(0) "" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(true) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) }In the autumn of 2014 the Court ruled that the image of a police officer securing a demonstration might appear without prior consent as news illustration in the press due to the freedom of the press. The Constitutional Court drew attention to the wide freedom of expression in connection with the published value judgements on candidates (often incumbent mayors) during the election campaign. Constitutional requirements were laid down for the procedure of data classification restricting the right to access public information and its requirements. A Court decision reconfirmed that a tax claim may only be enforced in civil procedure if there is a Tax Authority decision against the person liable to pay tax. The Court discussed the presumption of innocence in connection with the extraordinary notice of dismissal and the prohibition of inhuman and degrading treatment and torture in relation to prison cell sizes. Moreover, the Court also expounded on the concept of the equality of weapons in criminal cases.
" } ["copyrightHolder"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["prefix"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["subtitle"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["title"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(34) "Az Alkotmánybíróság gyakorlata" } ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["authors"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(Author)#805 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(3265) ["email"]=> string(19) "noreply@ludovika.hu" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(2887) ["seq"]=> int(6) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(8) "Köblös" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(5) "Adél" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } ["keywords"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> array(2) { [0]=> string(20) "Constitutional Court" [1]=> string(13) "Tax Authority" } } ["subjects"]=> array(0) { } ["disciplines"]=> array(0) { } ["languages"]=> array(0) { } ["supportingAgencies"]=> array(0) { } ["galleys"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(ArticleGalley)#799 (7) { ["_submissionFile"]=> NULL ["_data"]=> array(9) { ["submissionFileId"]=> int(8163) ["id"]=> int(2026) ["isApproved"]=> bool(false) ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["label"]=> string(3) "PDF" ["publicationId"]=> int(2887) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["urlPath"]=> string(0) "" ["urlRemote"]=> string(0) "" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(true) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) }Between September 2014 and December 2014, the Curia of Hungary rendered important decisions in respect of the following fundamental rights issues: right to human dignity [Article II of the Fundamental Law], right to the protection of one’s family life [Article VI, paragraph (1) of the Fundamental Law], right to have access to information of public interest [Article VI, paragraph (2) of the Fundamental Law], freedom of expression [Article IX of the Fundamental Law], limitations on expropriation [Article XIII, paragraph (2) of the Fundamental Law], right of access to the courts and right of appeal [Article XXVIII, paragraphs (1) and (7) of the Fundamental Law].
" } ["copyrightHolder"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["prefix"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["subtitle"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["title"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(24) "A Kúria gyakorlatából" } ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["authors"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(Author)#798 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(15) { ["id"]=> int(3266) ["email"]=> string(19) "noreply@ludovika.hu" ["includeInBrowse"]=> bool(true) ["publicationId"]=> int(2889) ["seq"]=> int(7) ["userGroupId"]=> int(235) ["country"]=> string(2) "HU" ["orcid"]=> string(0) "" ["url"]=> string(0) "" ["affiliation"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["biography"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["familyName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(6) "Berkes" } ["givenName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(7) "Bálint" } ["preferredPublicName"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(0) "" ["hu_HU"]=> string(0) "" } ["submissionLocale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } ["keywords"]=> array(1) { ["hu_HU"]=> array(2) { [0]=> string(5) "Curia" [1]=> string(15) "Fundamental Law" } } ["subjects"]=> array(0) { } ["disciplines"]=> array(0) { } ["languages"]=> array(0) { } ["supportingAgencies"]=> array(0) { } ["galleys"]=> array(1) { [0]=> object(ArticleGalley)#803 (7) { ["_submissionFile"]=> NULL ["_data"]=> array(9) { ["submissionFileId"]=> int(8165) ["id"]=> int(2027) ["isApproved"]=> bool(false) ["locale"]=> string(5) "hu_HU" ["label"]=> string(3) "PDF" ["publicationId"]=> int(2889) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["urlPath"]=> string(0) "" ["urlRemote"]=> string(0) "" } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(true) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) } } } ["_hasLoadableAdapters"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataExtractionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_extractionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) ["_metadataInjectionAdapters"]=> array(0) { } ["_injectionAdaptersLoaded"]=> bool(false) }Az üldöztetés elismert okai a menekültügyi eljárásokban – Az Európai Bíróság legújabb ítélkezési gyakorlata
Under the Qualification Directive, a non-EU citizen who has a well-founded fear of being persecuted in his home country for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a particular social group may request refugee status within the EU. The Court of Justice has recently ruled on several occasions on questions regarding these reasons of persecution, which are naturally closely linked to the political and social situation prevailing in the asylum seeker’s country of origin.
Most persons seeking for asylum within the EU come from African and Asian countries in which political, ethnic and religious conflicts cast a shadow over the life of local people. Although these conflicts do not necessarily result in persecution of such nature or frequency that would breach the fundamental rights of persons or groups of persons, the cases submitted to the Court have clearly shown that the risk of serious persecution is real.
Restrictions on or open denial of the right to freedom of religion can entail such oppression of religious minorities that their protection by the international community becomes necessary. The Court set out in a case concerning continuous attacks on the Muslim Ahmadiyya community in Pakistan that aggressions aiming at preventing the public manifestation of a religion may constitute persecution for reasons of religion.
In other countries, homosexual acts are a criminal offence and may lead to serious punishment, including life imprisonment. In this context, the Court assessed whether homosexuals may be regarded as forming a particular social group whose members, should they be persecuted in their country of origin, can seek protection within the EU. The Court has also clarified how national authorities can assess the credibility of the declared sexual orientation of applicants for asylum.
The huge number of asylum seekers arriving in the EU entails naturally the rising of the number of cases in which the Qualification Directive needs to be applied. As a consequence, such cases are being discussed more and more often before the Court and one can reasonably expect that its judges will have the opportunity also in the future to enrich the case-law regarding the reasons of persecution. The matter being important for every Member State, it can be useful from a practical point of view that, in case of doubts as to how to apply the Directive, these cases are submitted directly to the Court so the national courts and authorities can be given a uniform interpretation of it.
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As far as judgments against other countries are concerned, this review recounts cases touching on the investigation into the crackdown on demonstrations in Bucharest in June 1990; on the capture and detention of an Iraqi national by the British forces during the hostilities in Iraq in 2003; on the family life of a person whose immigration status in the Netherlands was precarious from the outset; as well as on the abuse of the right of application in a case concerning the possibility, in Switzerland, to obtain drugs enabling a suicide.
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