North Korean Labor Export as a Hybrid State Strategy

Economic Coercion, Political Control, and International Adaptation

Abstract

This paper analyzes North Korea’s labor export system as a state-organized and tightly controlled process distinct from conventional migration. Drawing on reports from international organizations, the study shows that the system meets key criteria of forced labor, including restrictions on movement and state appropriation of wages. The findings suggest that labor export functions as a hybrid tool that generates foreign currency, reinforces political control, and supports regime stability. The paper also highlights that international sanctions have not eliminated the system but have instead driven its adaptation, particularly in the cases of China and Russia.