The Role of ICT in Refugee Governance in Bangladesh
Copyright (c) 2024 Zakir A.N.M. Hossain
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Absztrakt
The study discusses the evolving role of information and communication technology (ICT) in refugee crisis management, transitioning from a humanitarian to an enabling model. The focus is on how ICT contributes to education, self-reliance, skill development and entrepreneurship among refugees, marking a shift in the paradigm of how refugee crises are addressed. The study, centred in Bangladesh, explores the intricate connection between ICT and the governance of refugee landscapes. It delves into questions about how ICT ensures safety and dignity for refugees in camps during transitory settlement, as well as considering its impact on future refugee management and resettlement. The research, conducted through content analysis and based on secondary data, reveals that ICT interventions offer comprehensive benefits. They create a platform involving various stakeholders, emphasising a trade-off in Rohingya refugee governance, providing geo-localised support, aiding in adverse situations, and identifying harmonised ideas for coordinated actions. The article aims to present a concise snapshot of ICT’s current role, its potential, ongoing strategies, and possibilities for achieving easier, cheaper and better outcomes for refugees.
Kulcsszavak:
Hivatkozások
ABUJAROUR, Safa’a – KRASNOVA, Hanna (2017): Understanding the Role of ICTs in Promoting Social Inclusion: The Case of Syrian Refugees in Germany. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Information Systems, Guimarães, Portugal.
ABUJAROUR, Safa’a – KRASNOVA, Hanna (2018): E-Learning as a Means of Social Inclusion: The Case of Syrian Refugees in Germany. In Proceedings of the Americas Conference on Information Systems, New Orleans.
AL-MAHMOOD, Syed Zain (2012): Burma’s Rohingya Refugees Find Little Respite in Bangladesh. The Guardian, 29 June 2012. Online: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2012/jun/29/burma-rohingya-refugees-bangladesh
ANDRADE, Antonio D. – DOOLIN, Bill (2016): Information and Communication Technology and the Social Inclusion of Refugees. MIS Quarterly, 40(2), 405–416. Online: https://doi.org/10.25300/MISQ/2016/40.2.06
ARMSTRONG, Martin (2018): Who are Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh? Statista, 15 November 2018. Online: https://www.statista.com/chart/16109/who-are-the-rohingya-refugees-in-bangladesh/
BBC. (2020). Myanmar Rohingya: What you need to know about the crisis. Online: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-41566561
BERRY, Mike – GARCIA-BLANCO, Inaki – MOORE, Kerry (2016): Press Coverage of the Refugee and Migrant Crisis in the EU: A Content Analysis of five European Countries. Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Online: https://www.unhcr.org/media/press-coverage-refugee-and-migrant-crisis-eu-content-analysis-five-european-countries
COHEN, Louis – MANION, Lawrence – MORRISON, Keith (2002): Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203224342
COUTTS, Evan (2005): The Rohingya Refugee Situation in Bangladesh. American International School/Dhaka Senior Project 2005. Online: http://www.rna-press.com/data/itemfiles/9bcc51b07210277172cfaca50dd60ff6.pdf
DAHYA, N. (2016): Education in Crisis and Conflict: How Can Technology Make a Difference – A Landscape Review. GIZ.
GANGULY, Sumit – MILIATE, Brandon (2015): Refugees and Neighbors: Rohingya in Bangladesh. The Diplomat, 14 October 2015. Online: https://thediplomat.com/2015/10/refugees-and-neighbors-rohingya-in-bangladesh/
GIANFREDA, Stella (2018): Politicization of the Refugee Crisis?: A Content Analysis of Parliamentary Debates in Italy, the UK, and the EU. Italian Political Science Review/Rivista Italiana di Scienza Politica, 48(1), 85–108. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/ipo.2017.20
Goma Epidemiology Group (1995): Public Health Impact of Rwandan Refugee Crisis: What Happened in Goma, Zaire, in July, 1994? The Lancet, 345, 339–344. Online: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90338-0
HAMILTON, Richard – MOORE, Dennis (2003): Educational Interventions for Refugee Children: Theoretical Perspectives and Implementing Best Practice. Routledge.
HOLSTI, O. R. (1969): Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
HOLZER, Elizabeth (2013): What Happens to Law in a Refugee Camp? Law & Society Review, 47(4), 837–872. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12041
HOMER, Karen (2019): Skills Training to Equip 8,400 Rohingya Adolescents with Hope for a Better Future. World Vision, 26 February 2019. Online: https://www.wvi.org/myanmar-%E2%80%93-bangladesh-refugee-crisis/article/skills-training-equip-8400-rohingya-adolescents-hope
HOSSAIN, A. N. M. (2020a): Rohingya Refugee and Resettlement Nexus in Bangladesh: Why it Become a Research Agenda? Journal of Social and Political Sciences, 3(3), 868–874. Online: https://doi.org/10.31014/aior.1991.03.03.219
HOSSAIN, A. N. M. (2020b): Unfolding the Role of Non-State Actors in Rohingya Refugee Crisis at Bangladesh. Košická Bezpečnostná Revue, 10(2), 17–33. Online: https://kbr.vsbm.sk/2020/n2/hossain.pdf
HOSSAIN, A. N. M. Z. (2021a): Sustainable development and livelihoods of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh: The effects of COVID-19. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 16(6), 1141-1152. Online:: https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.160615
HOSSAIN, A. N. M. Z. (2021b): The Future of Refugee and Displaced People: A Post Covid–19 Perspective. Asian Social Science, 17(1), 21–33. Online: https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v17n1p21
Human Rights Watch (2019): Are We Not Human?: Denial of Education for Rohingya Refugee Children in Bangladesh. Online: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/bangladesh1219_web_1.pdf
Human Rights Watch (2000): Burmese Refugees in Bangladesh: Still No Durable Solution. 1 May 2000. Online: https://www.hrw.org/report/2000/05/01/burmese-refugees-bangladesh/still-no-durable-solution
ISLAM, Nurul (2006): Facts about the Rohingya Muslims of Arakan. Arakan Rohingya National Organisation. Online: https://www.rohingya.org/facts-about-the-rohingya-muslims-of-arakan
IWILADE, Akin (2015): New Spaces, New Interactions? Young People’s Online Social Networks and Gender Relations in Africa. Gender, Technology and Development, 19(1), 70–90. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852414561613
Japan Times (2017): Security Concerns Build in South Asia as Rohingya Crisis Worsens. The Japan Times, 15 September 2017. Online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/09/15/asia-pacific/securityconcerns-build-south-asia-rohingya-crisis-worsens/#.WfBueJj2aP8
JOEHNK, Tom F. (2017): How the Rohingya Crisis is Changing Bangladesh, The New York Times, 6 October 2017. Online: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/06/opinion/rohingya-bangladesh-myanmar.html
JOHNSON, Harry G. (1967): The Ideology of Economic Policy in New States. In JOHNSON, Harry G. (ed.): Economic Nationalism in Old and New States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 124–141. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003195665-8
KHATUN, Fahmida – KAMRUZZAMAN, Md (2018): Fiscal Implications of Rohingya Crisis for Bangladesh. Center for Policy Dialogue (CPD).
KNUTERS, Simon (2018): Political Buddhism and the Exclusion of Rohingya in Myanmar. Master’s Thesis in Human Rights, Uppsala University, Norway.
LEIDER, Jacques (2018): Rohingya: The History of a Muslim Identity in Myanmar. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.115
LEWA, Chris (2009): North Arakan: An Open Prison for the Rohingya in Burma. Forced Migration Review, (32), 11–13.
LEWIS, Kent – THACKER, Simon (2016): ICT and the Education of Refugees: A Stocktaking of Innovative Approaches in the MENA Region. SABER-ICT Technical Paper Series No. 17. Washington, DC: World Bank. Online: https://doi.org/10.1596/26522
LUCE, Edgar (2015): Evolution for WFP’s Food Assistance Program for Syrian Refugees in Jordan. ENN Online, 24 March 2015. Online: https://www.ennonline.net/fex/48/evolution
MASON, Ben – BUCHMANN, Dennis (2016): ICT4 Refugee. Berlin: GIZ.
MILTON, Abul H. – RAHMAN, Mijanur – HUSSAIN, Sumaira – JINDAL, Charulata – CHOUDHURY, Sushmita – AKTER, Shahnaz – FERDOUSI, Shahana – MOULY, Tafzila A. – HALL, John – EFIRD Jimmy T. (2017): Trapped in Statelessness: Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(8). Online: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14080942
MITRA, D. (2017): Public Anger Brews in Bangladesh over India’s Stance on Rohingya Crisis. The Wire, 10 September 2017. Online: https://thewire.in/176013/bangaldesh-rohingya-crisis-myanmarindia/
NADIG, Aninia (2002): Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection. Journal of Refugee Studies, 15(1), 1–25. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/15.1.1
Needs and Population Monitoring (NPM) (2018): Government of Bangladesh, Round 13, November 2018. Online: https://data.humdata.org/dataset/iom-bangladesh-needs-and-population-monitoring-npm-round-13-site-assessment?
OBERG, Charles (2019): The Arc of Migration and the Impact on Children’s Health and Well-Being Forward to the Special Issue-Children on the Move. Children, 6(9). Online: https://doi.org/10.3390/children6090100
OH, Su-Ann (2017): Surveillance and Control: The Encampment and Biometric Identification of Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh. ISEAS Perspective 93. Singapore: ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute.
OHCHR (2017): Darker and More Dangerous: High Commissioner Updates the Human Rights Council on Human Rights Issues in 40 Countries. Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Online: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22041
PANHUIS, Janette (2018): Neglected Populations, Neglected Diseases. European Heart Journal, 39(14), 1124–1127. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehy139
PATTON, Michael Q. (2014): Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice. SAGE.
PRODIP, Mahbub A. (2017): Health and Educational Status of Rohingya Refugee Children in Bangladesh. Journal of Population and Social Studies, 25(2), 135–146. Online: https://doi.org/10.25133/JPSSv25n2.005
RAHMAN, Utpala (2010): The Rohingya Refugee: A Security Dilemma for Bangladesh. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 8(2), 233–239. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/15562941003792135
REARDON, Chistopher. (2019): Angelina Jolie calls for an end to the injustices that have driven nearly a million Rohingyas into exile in Bangladesh. UNHCR. Online: https://www.acnur.org/br/noticias/comunicados-imprensa/angelina-jolie-pede-fim-injusticas-que-levaram-quase-um-milhao-de
ROZARIO, Rock R. (2020): Bangladesh Permits Education for Rohingya Children. UCA News, 2 January 2020. Online: https://www.ucanews.com/news/bangladesh-permits-education-for-rohingya-children/87099#
SIDDIQUI, Habib (2005): Rohingya: The Forgotten People. Islamicity, 22 August 2005. Online: https://www.islamicity.org/2698/rohingya-the-forgotten-people/?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1
SMITH, Martin (1996): The Muslim “Rohingyas” of Burma. Burma Centrum Nederland. Online: https://www.burmalibrary.org/sites/burmalibrary.org/files/obl/docs24/Martin_Smith-1995-12-11-The_Muslim_%27Rohingyas%27_of_Burma.pdf
ST-DENIS ALEX (2019): Registration gives many Rohingya refugees identification for the first time, UNHCR. Online: https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh/registration-gives-many-rohingya-refugees-identification-first-time
SOUTH, Ashley (2003): Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma: The Golden Sheldrake. New York: Routledge.
STONE, Philip J. – DUNPHY, Dexter C. – SMITH, Marshall S. – OGILVIE, Daniel (1966): The General Inquirer: A Computer Approach to Content Analysis. Cambridge, MIT Press.
TOOLE, M. J. – WALDMAN, R. J. (1997): The Public Health Aspects of Complex Emergencies and Refugee Situations. Annual Review of Public Health, 18(1), 283–312. Online: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.18.1.283
TRUELOVE, Shaun – ABRAHIM, Orit – ALTARE, Chiara – LAUER, Stephen A. – GRANTZ, Kyra H. – AZMAN, Andrew S. – SPIEGEL, Paul (2020): The Potential Impact of COVID-19 in Refugee Camps in Bangladesh and Beyond: A Modeling Study. PLoS Medicine, 17(6), e1003144. Online: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003144
UDDIN, Nasir ed. (2012): To Host or to Hurt: Counter-Narratives on Rohingya Refugee Issue in Bangladesh. Bangladesh: Institute of Culture et Development Research.
ULLAH, Akm A. (2011): Rohingya Refugees to Bangladesh: Historical Exclusions and Contemporary Marginalization. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 9(2), 139–161. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2011.567149
UNESCO (2018): A Lifeline to Learning: Leveraging Technology to Support Education for Refugees. The Global Education 2030 Agenda. Online: https://doi.org/10.54675/ULTW4494
UNHCR (2016): Connecting Refugees. How Internet and Mobile Connectivity can Improve Refugee Well-Being and Transform Humanitarian Action. Online: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/connecting-refugees-how-internet-and-mobile-connectivity-can-improve-refugee-well-being
UNHCR (2019): UNHCR-WFP Joint Assessment Mission (JAM) Report. Online: https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/72273
UNHCR (2020): Figures at a Glance. Online: https://www.unhcr.org/figures-at-a-glance.html
United Nations (2019): A Record Number of People Will Need Help Worldwide during 2020: UN Humanitarian Overview. 4 December 2019. Online: https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/12/1052731
VAN KLINKEN, Gerry – AUNG, Su M. T. (2017): The Contentious Politics of Anti-Muslim Scapegoating in Myanmar. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 47(3), 353–375. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2017.1293133
VERNON, BIDO. D – FRYDENLUND, E – PADILLA, J. J – EARNEST, D. C. (2017): Durable solutions and potential protraction: The syrian refugee case. In Proceedings of the 50th Annual Simulation Symposium, (pp. 1-9). Online: https://doi.org/10.22360/springsim.2017.anss.034
WARSCHAUER, M. (2003): Technology and Social Inclusion: Rethinking the Digital Divide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6699.001.0001
WEBER, Robert P. (1990): Basic Content Analysis (Vol. 49). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. Online: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412983488
WFP (2018): Rohingya Emergency Vulnerability Assessment-2 (REVA-2), Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.
WILLIAMSON, Kirsty – GIVEN, Lisa – SCIFLEET, Paul (2013): Qualitative Data Analysis. In WILLIAMSON, Kirsty – JOHANSON, Graeme (eds.): Research Methods: Information, Systems, and Contexts. Prahran: Tilde University Press, 417–439.
World Bank (2016): ICT and the Education of Refugees: A Stocktaking of Innovative Approaches in the MENA Region: Lessons of Experience and Guiding Principles. New York: World Bank. Online: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/25172/Lessons0of0exp0d0guiding%200principles.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
World Economic Forum (2020): The Global Risks Report 2020. Online: https://es.weforum.org/reports/the-global-risks-report-2020
