object(Publication)#1041 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(23) { ["id"]=> int(7184) ["accessStatus"]=> int(0) ["lastModified"]=> string(19) "2024-04-10 13:14:05" ["primaryContactId"]=> int(8958) ["sectionId"]=> int(31) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["submissionId"]=> int(7060) ["status"]=> int(1) ["version"]=> int(1) ["categoryIds"]=> array(0) { } ["citationsRaw"]=> string(3908) "Bacsó, R. (2016). Virtuális valuta mint a modern kori pénzpiaci szabályozás kihívása [Virtual Currency as a Challenge of the Modern Financial Market Regulation]. Polgári Szemle, 12(1–3), 244–251. Online: https://shorturl.at/nuCF3 Cifrino, C. (2014). Virtual Property, Virtual Rights: Why Contract Law, Not Property Law, Must be the Governing Paradigm in the Law of Virtual Worlds. Boston College Law Review, 55(1), 235–264. Online: https://shorturl.at/amqY1 De Filippi, P. & Wright, A. (2019). Blockchain and the Law. The Rule of Code. Harvard University Press. European Central Bank (2015). Virtual Currency Schemes – A Further Analysis. Online: https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/virtualcurrencyschemesen.pdf Frye, B. L. (April 19, 2021). NFTs & the Death of Art. Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3829399 Garbers-von Boehm, K., Haag, H. & Gruber, K. (2022). Intellectual Property Rights and Distributed Ledger Technology with a focus on art NFTs and tokenized physical artwork. Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs Directorate-General for Internal Policies. Online: https://shorturl.at/hjySU Juhász, Á. (2021). Intelligent Contracts – A New Generation of Contractual Agreements? European Integration Studies, 16(1), 41–53. Online: https://ojs.uni-miskolc.hu/index.php/eis/article/view/963 Juhász, Á. (2023). Hagyományos magánjogi megoldások – 21. századi kihívások [Conventional Private Law Solutions – 21st Century Challenges]. In Karlovitz, János Tibor (Ed.), What Will Our Future Be Like? (pp. 222–234). Sozial und Wirtschafts Forschungsgruppe. Kőhidi, Á. (2022). A virtuális valóság pszeudoreáliáinak polgári jogi vizsgálata [Civil Law Analysis of Virtual Reality Pseudorealia]. In Medias Res, 11(2), 55–66. Online: https://inmediasresfolyoirat.hu/imr/article/view/251 Kulakova, O. S. (2022). Digital Art in the Light of NFT: Market Role and Legal Uncertainty. Digital Law Review, 3(2), 36–50. Online: https://doi.org/10.38044/2686-9136-2022-3-2-36-50 Radin, J. M. (1982). Property and Personhood. Stanford Law Review, 34(5), 957–1015. Online: https://doi.org/10.2307/1228541 Rohr, J. & Wright, A. (2019). Blockchain-Based Token Sales, Initial Coin Offerings, and the Democratization of Public Capital Market. Hastings Law Journal, 70(2), 463–524. Online: https://shorturl.at/bcv12 Szilágyi, F. (2022a). Kié a digitális adat? Az allokatív adatjog létjogosultsága a magánjogi (dologi jogi) megközelítés margóján. I. rész [Who Owns the Digital Data? The Justification of Allocative Data Law in the Context of the Private Law (in Rem) Approach. Part I]. Polgári Jog, 7(9–10). Online: https://doi.org/10.55413/193.A2200501.POJ Szilágyi, F. (2022b). Kié a digitális adat? Az allokatív adatjog létjogosultsága a magánjogi (dologi jogi) megközelítés margóján. II. rész [Who Owns the Digital Data? The Justification of Allocative Data Law in the Context of the Private Law (in Rem) Approach. Part II]. Polgári Jog, 7(11–12). Online: https://doi.org/10.55413/193.A2200602.POJ Sztermen, O. L. (2022). A digitális műalkotások megjelenési kérdései I. terminológiai problémák [Appearance and Legal Terminology of Digital Artworks: Part One: Thoughts on Terminology]. Miskolci Jogtudó, 6(3), 70–83. Online: https://shorturl.at/beoyP Wang, G., Gunasekaran, A., Ngai, E. W. T & Papadopoulos, T. (2016). Big Data Analytics in Logistics and Supply Chain Management: Certain Investigations for Research and Applications. International Journal of Production Economics, 176(June), 98–110. Online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2016.03.014 Woebbeking, M. K. (2019). The Impact of Smart Contracts on Traditional Concepts of Contracts Law. JIPITEC – Journal of Intellectual Property, Information Technology and E-Commerce Law, 10(1), 106–113. Online: https://shorturl.at/btGJM" ["issueId"]=> int(576) ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.53116/pgaflr.7060" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(1215) "

By writing this paper, the authors intended to answer questions raised by the transfer of digital artworks in the online space. At the beginning of the study, the basic expressions, including NFT digital artwork, will be explained. Then, it will be examined how these new forms of artwork can be treated by civil law. Although NFTs change hands daily, their legal nature, i.e. if they shall be deemed as things in the civil law sense, is unclear. If NFTs are treated as things, they can be a subject of ownership, and the provisions on the transfer of ownership rights shall be applied, which raises several further questions. According to another approach, NFTs embody the right to dispose, while there are other opinions as to which NFTs, following the model of bank account money, shall be deemed as claims facilitating the application of the provisions of the law of obligations. After reviewing the different approaches to the legal nature of NFTs, features of online auctions of NFT artworks will be introduced. Then, it will be examined if the platforms enabling online auctions fall under the scope of the recently adopted Digital Market Act and if so, which rules of the Act are applicable for them.

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Associate Professor, Department of Civil Law, Faculty of Law, University of Miskolc, Miskolc, Hungary

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PhD Student, Ferenc Deák Doctoral School of Law, University of Miskolc, Miskolc, Hungary

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object(Publication)#1056 (6) { ["_data"]=> array(23) { ["id"]=> int(7232) ["accessStatus"]=> int(0) ["lastModified"]=> string(19) "2024-04-15 23:52:08" ["primaryContactId"]=> int(9034) ["sectionId"]=> int(31) ["seq"]=> int(0) ["submissionId"]=> int(7108) ["status"]=> int(1) ["version"]=> int(1) ["categoryIds"]=> array(0) { } ["citationsRaw"]=> string(3717) "Axon Enterprise, Inc. (2019). First Report of the Axon AI & Policing Technology Ethics Board. Online: https://shorturl.at/kyEHR Bensinger, K. & Chang, A. (2013, April 20). Boston Bombings: Social Media Spirals out of Control. Los Angeles Times. Online: https://shorturl.at/nstEU Berryhill, J., Heang, K. K., Clogher, R. & McBride, K. (2019). Hello, World: Artificial Intelligence and Its Use in the Public Sector. OECD Working Papers on Public Governance, (36). Online: https://doi.org/10.1787/726fd39d-en Campbell, D. (2001, October 17). US Buys Up All Satellite War Images. Manchester Guardian. CBS News (2013, April 24). Social Media and the Search for the Boston Bombing Suspects. CBS News. Online: https://shorturl.at/gJQTU Connors, B. & Zauderer, A. (2013, January 2). Police Use Facebook to ID Waterford Robbery Suspects. NBC Connecticut. Online: https://shorturl.at/hmW34 Davidson, R. (2019, August 8). Automated Threat Detection and the Future of Policing. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Online: https://shorturl.at/erPZ2 Deeks, A. S. (2018). Predicting Enemies. Virginia Law Review, 104(8), 1529–1592. Online: https://shorturl.at/lxyDM Dutton, T. (2018, December 6). Building an AI World: Report on National and Regional Strategies. CIFAR. Online: https://shorturl.at/dlFJ3 Dyer, J. (2013, April 27). Social Media and the Boston Bombings. BBC Radio. Online: https://shorturl.at/gmoC0 Gianni, R., Lehtinen, S. & Nieminen, M. (2022). Governance of Responsible AI: From Ethical Guidelines to Cooperative Policies. Frontiers in Computer Science, 4. Online: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2022.873437 International Association of Chiefs of Police. (2011). Survey of Law Enforcement’s Use of Social Media Tools. Losavio, J. D. & Losavio, M. M. (2014). Prosecution and Social Media. In C. D. Marcum & G. E. Higgins (Eds.), Social Networking as a Criminal Enterprise (pp. 197–220). Taylor & Francis. Online: https://shorturl.at/tBF69 Losavio, M., Elmaghraby, A. & Losavio, A. (2018). Ubiquitous Networks, Ubiquitous Sensors: Issues of Security, Reliability and Privacy in the Internet of Things. In N. Boudriga, M. S. Alouini, S. Rekhis, E. Sabir & S. Pollin (Eds.), Ubiquitous Networking. UNet 2018. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS), 11277. Springer. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02849-7_30 Misuraca, G. & Van Noordt, C. (2020). AI Watch. Artificial Intelligence in Public Services. Publications Office of the European Union. Online: https://doi.org/10.2760/039619 Mitrou, L. (2018). Data Protection, Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Services: Is the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) ‘Artificial Intelligence-Proof’? Online: https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3386914 Perry, W. L., McInnis, B., Price, C. C., Smith, S. & Hollywood, J. S. (2013). Predictive Policing. The Role of Crime Forecasting in Law Enforcement Operations. RAND Corporation. Online: https://doi.org/10.7249/RR233 Saravia, E. (2022). Prompt Engineering Guide. GitHub. Online: https://github.com/dair-ai/Prompt-Engineering-Guide Stuart, R. D. (2013, February 5). Social Media: Establishing Criteria for Law Enforcement Use. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Online: https://shorturl.at/intzO Wallach, W. & Marchant, G. E. (2018). An Agile Ethical/Legal Model for the International and National Governance of AI and Robotics. Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence. Online: https://shorturl.at/deHT7 Winfield, A. F. & Jirotka, M. (2018). Ethical Governance Is Essential in Building Trust in Robotics and Artificial Intelligence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 376(2133). Online: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2018.0085" ["issueId"]=> int(576) ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.53116/pgaflr.7108" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(502) "

There is a tension between state oversight and state intrusion into our personal lives. The analytical powers of artificial intelligence/machine learning and the pervasive data collection of the Internet of Things, the Smart City and all those personal devices we use together permit revelations as to our lives as never seen before. We must consider the impact of this on the relations between citizen and government in this new, ubiquitous world of government cybersurveillance and revelation.

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Associate Professor, Department of Criminal Justice and Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA

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