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Online: https://doi.org/10.32559/et.2023.4.3 KORDALSKA, Aleksandra – OLCZYK, Magdalena (2023): Upgrading Low Value-Added Activities in Global Value Chains: A Functional Specialisation Approach. Economic Systems Research, 35(2), 265–291. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09535314.2022.2047011 KRUGMAN, Paul (1994): Competitiveness: A Dangerous Obsession. Foreign Affairs, 73(2) 28–45. Online: https://doi.org/10.2307/20045917 LAVERY, Scott (2024): Rebuilding the Fortress? Europe in a Changing World Economy. Review of International Political Economy, 31(1), 330–353. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2023.2211281 LETTA, Enrico (2024): Much More Than a Market. Speed, Security, Solidarity. Empowering the Single Market to Deliver a Sustainable Future and Prosperity for All Eu Citizens. European Union. 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Despite the prevalence of discourse surrounding the concept of competitiveness, recent reports on the European Single Market and competitiveness frequently neglect to underscore the pivotal role of foreign direct investment (FDI) and foreign trade. The present study aspires to address this gap by undertaking a comprehensive analysis of FDI and foreign trade trends within the European Union (EU) from 2005 to 2023. This analysis will be conducted by comparing these trends with those observed in the United States and China, in addition to examining the EU’s internal economic dynamics. The statistical analysis reveals a multifaceted relationship between FDI, foreign trade, and the EU’s competitiveness. Significant variations in the EU’s FDI structure are identified: inward and outward investments exhibit different growth rates, and certain member states function as intermediaries, which can result in resource allocation challenges. In the context of foreign trade, the EU confronts mounting competition from China, persistent internal trade imbalances, and a continued reliance on substantial foreign value-added content. While the EU performs well in service exports and medium-tech manufacturing, it lags behind in high-tech and primary product exports. The study concludes that the development of a comprehensive competitiveness strategy is essential to address these challenges and enhance economic resilience.

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Bár a versenyképesség széles körben tárgyalt fogalom, az európai egységes piacról és a versenyképességről szóló legújabb jelentések gyakran nem hangsúlyozzák eléggé a külföldi közvetlentőke-befektetés (FDI) és a külkereskedelem meghatározó szerepét. Ez a tanulmány ezt a hiányosságot igyekszik pótolni az EU 2005 és 2023 közötti FDI- és külkereskedelmi trendjeinek elemzésével, az Egyesült Államokkal és Kínával való összehasonlításával, valamint az EU belső gazdasági dinamikájának vizsgálatával. A statisztikai elemzés rávilágít az FDI, a külkereskedelem és az EU versenyképessége közötti összetett kapcsolatra. Jelentős különbségeket tár fel az EU FDI-struktúrájában: a befelé és kifelé irányuló befektetések eltérő mértékben alakulnak, egyes tagállamok pedig közvetítő szerepet töltenek be, ami problémákhoz vezethet. A külkereskedelem terén az EU-nak szembe kell néznie a Kína által támasztott egyre erősebb versennyel, a belső kereskedelmi egyensúlytalanságokkal és a tartósan magas külföldi hozzáadott értéktől való függőséggel. Noha az EU jól teljesít a szolgáltatás- és a közepes technológiai színvonalú export terén, a csúcstechnológiai és elsődleges termékek exportjának tekintetében lemaradásban van. A tanulmány szerint elengedhetetlen egy átfogó versenyképességi stratégia kialakítása e kihívások kezelésére és a gazdasági ellenálló képesség növelésére.

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(2021): China’s Strategic Narratives in Global Governance Reform under Xi Jinping. Journal of Contemporary China, 30(128), 299–313. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2020.1790904 YOUNGS, Richard (2022): Rebuilding European Democracy: Resistance and Renewal in an Illiberal Age. [s. l.]: I.B. Tauris. Online: https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755639755" ["copyrightYear"]=> int(2025) ["issueId"]=> int(658) ["licenseUrl"]=> string(49) "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0" ["pages"]=> string(5) "35-56" ["pub-id::doi"]=> string(20) "10.32559/et.2024.4.2" ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(1658) "

This article examines how the Russia–Ukraine conflict has influenced the strategic narratives of the European Union and China, transforming their discursive approaches to global security and international order. Drawing on constructivist theoretical framework, the study analyses official statements, policy documents, and diplomatic communications from 2022 through 2024 to demonstrate how both actors have recalibrated their narratives in response to the changing geopolitical landscape. The findings reveal that while the EU has shifted towards a more securitised narrative framework, emphasising territorial integrity and collective defence, China has maintained strategic ambiguity while promoting alternative governance paradigms. The analysis identifies three key developments: the intensification of narrative divergence between the EU and China, structural changes in their diplomatic alignments, and the emergence of competing visions for global governance. These evolving narratives have significant implications for international relations, suggesting an acceleration of bloc politics, technological decoupling, and competing economic frameworks. The study also highlights a fundamental tension between the EU’s traditional self-conception as a normative power and contemporary geopolitical realities, particularly as it adapts to new security imperatives while maintaining its commitment to democratic principles. These findings contribute to our understanding of how strategic narratives not only reflect but actively constitute international relations and influence the evolution of global order in an increasingly multipolar world.

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Online: https://doi.org/10.58528/JAP.2023.15-2.29 MOREL, Sophie – VAN ALST, Hadewich – MARINOIU, Beatrice – CILLI, Valentina – NIKOLOVA, Madlen – WILDOER, Eline (2022): Study to Support the Preparation of an Impact Assessment on a Possible Union Legislative Initiative on the Recognition of Parenthood between Member States. Final Report. European Commission, B-1049. Online: https://bit.ly/3I7FMU7 NEIDHARDT, Alberto-Horst (2018): The Coman Case: Extending Free Movement Rights to Same Sex Couples or Protecting Marital Status? European University Institute, 2018. december 13. Online: https://me.eui.eu/alberto-horst-neidhardt/blog/the-coman-case-enhancing-free-movement-rights-for-same-sex-couples-or-protecting-the-status-of-marriage Poland to Veto EU Proposal to Harmonise Surrogacy and LGBT Families. CNE News, 2022 december 13. Online: https://cne.news/article/2201-poland-to-veto-eu-proposal-to-harmonise-surrogacy-and-lgbt-families SZEIBERT Orsolya (2013): Ami a házasság témájából Európát jelenleg leginkább foglalkoztatja: az azonos nemű partnerek házassága. Családi Jog, 11(1), 38–44. TRYFONIDOU, Alina (2024): Free Movement of Same-Sex Spouses within the EU: The ECJ’s Coman Judgment. European Law Blog, 2024. augusztus 14. Online: https://www.europeanlawblog.eu/pub/free-movement-of-same-sex-spouses-within-the-eu-the-ecjs-coman-judgment/release/1 VAN DEN BRINK, Martijn (2018): Is the Reasoning in “Coman” as Good as the Result? Verfassunsgblog on Matters Constitutional, 2018. június 10. Online: https://verfassungsblog.de/is-the-reasoning-in-coman-as-good-as-the-result Jogi források - 2012. évi C. törvény a Büntető Törvénykönyvről Az Európai Unióról szóló szerződés és az Európai Unió működéséről szóló szerződés egységes szerkezetbe foglalt változata (EUMSZ) Az Európai Unió Alapjogi Chartája Az Európai Parlament és a Tanács 2004/38/EK irányelve (2004. április 29.) az Unió polgárainak és családtagjaiknak a tagállamok területén történő szabad mozgáshoz és tartózkodáshoz való jogáról, valamint az 1612/68/EGK rendelet módosításáról, továbbá a 64/221/EGK, a 68/360/EGK, a 72/194/EGK, a 73/148/EGK, a 75/34/EGK, a 75/35/EGK, a 90/364/EGK, a 90/365/EGK és a 93/96/EGK irányelv hatályon kívül helyezéséről ENSZ, Emberi Jogok Egyetemes Nyilatkozata, New York 1948 ENSZ, Polgári és Politikai Jogok Nemzetközi Egyezségokmánya, 1966 ENSZ, Gyermekjogi Egyezmény, New York 1989 Hágai Örökbefogadási Egyezmény, Hága 1993 Lisszaboni Szerződés Az Európai Unióról szóló szerződés és az Európai Közösséget létrehozó szerződés módosításáról, Lisszabon (Portugália), 2007. december 13. Bírósági döntések II OPS 1/19 (2019/12/02) Az Európai Unió Bírósága 221/21. sz. Sajtóközleménye. Online: https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2021-12/cp210221hu.pdf EJEB: 18766/11 and 36030/11 sz. az Oliari and Others v. Italy ügyben, 2015. július 21-én hozott ítélet. Online: http://www.articolo29.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/CASE-OF-OLIARI-AND-OTHERS-v.-ITALY.pdf EJEB: 29381/09 és 32684/09. sz. Vallianatos és társai kontra Görögország ügyben hozott döntés, 2013. november 7-én hozott ítélet. Online: http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-128294 EUB: a Coman és társai kontra Inspectoratul General pentru Imigrări és Ministerul Afacerilor Interne ítélet, C-673/16. sz. ügy. (2018. június 5.) EUB: a V.М.А. kontra Stolichna obshtina „Pancharevo” ügyben hozott ítélet (C-490/20 sz. ECLI:EU:C:2021:1008, 2021. december 14.) EUB: C‑2/21. sz. ügy Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich, végzés, 2022. június 24." 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This study explores how European Union law currently guarantees the right of same-sex married couples to freedom of movement and residence, what additional rights may be derived from this fundamental freedom, and what types of legal and political measures are necessary to ensure that rainbow families enjoy the right to free movement in cross-border situations within the EU.

Under EU law, Member States are now required to recognise the parenthood established in another Member State, particularly when it concerns the exercise of rights deriving from Union citizenship – such as the right to enter and reside in another Member State, the right to equal treatment, and the right to obtain travel documents for a child. However, EU law does not impose an obligation to recognise parenthood established in another Member State for the purposes of rights deriving from national law, such as inheritance, maintenance or parental responsibility.

 

It is assumed that EU law on the free movement of persons – as a non-discriminatory fundamental right – places an obligation on Member States to recognise same-sex marriages concluded in other Member States. This recognition ensures the cross-border portability of such marriages as a civil status throughout the EU. Furthermore, the refusal to recognise a same-sex marriage concluded abroad may be interpreted as an obstacle to the free movement of Union citizens. Such a restriction on a fundamental freedom is difficult to justify on grounds of public policy, public interest and/or national identity.

The method used to confirm or invalidate the hypothesis is through the analysis of the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Particular significance is attributed to two CJEU cases addressing the freedom of movement for rainbow families: the Coman and Pancharevo judgments.

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Jelen tanulmány vizsgálja, hogy az uniós jog jelenleg hogyan biztosítja az azonos nemű házaspárok szabad mozgáshoz és tartózkodáshoz való jogát, hogy milyen további jogok származtathatók ebből az alapvető szabadságból, és milyen típusú jogi és politikai lépésekre van szükség, ami biztosíthatja a határokon átnyúló esetekben a szivárványcsaládok szabad mozgáshoz való jogát az Európai Unióban.
A tagállamoknak az uniós jog értelmében ma már kötelezően el kell ismerniük a más tagállamban megállapított szülői jogállást, különösen a szabad mozgáshoz való uniós jogból eredő jogok – mint egy másik tagállamba való beutazáshoz és tartózkodáshoz való jog, az egyenlő bánásmódhoz való jog és a gyermek úti okmányainak beszerzéséhez való jog – alkalmazása esetén. Az uniós jog ugyanakkor nem írja elő a más tagállamban megállapított szülői jogállás elismerését a gyermek nemzeti jogából eredő jogai, például az öröklési, tartási vagy felügyeleti jogok szempontjából.
Feltételezhető, hogy a szabad mozgásról szóló uniós jog (mint megkülönböztetésmentes alapvető jog) kötelezettséget ró a tagállamokra az azonos nemű párok egy másik tagállamban kötött házasságának elismerésére vonatkozóan, ezáltal biztosítható az azonos nemű párok házasságának határokon átnyúló elismerése – mint családi állapot – az Európai Unióban. Továbbá, hogy az azonos nemű pár külföldön kötött házasságának el nem ismerését az uniós polgárok szabad mozgásának akadályaként is lehet értelmezni, illetve ezen alapvető szabadság korlátozása nehezen igazolható a közrendre, a közérdekre és/vagy nemzeti identitásra hivatkozással.
A hipotézis megerősítésére vagy érvénytelenítésére használt módszer az Európai Unió Bírósága (EUB) és az Emberi Jogok Európai Bírósága (EJEB) joggyakorlatának elemzésén keresztül történik. Az ügyek között különös jelentőség tulajdonítható a szivárványcsaládok mozgásszabadságát érintő két EUB-ügynek, a Coman- és a Pancharevo-ügynek.

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The principle of effective judicial protection has evolved from a general principle of EU law into a principle of constitutional nature linked to the rule of law. The preliminary ruling procedure of the EU has played an essential role in this development, as the ECJ has adapted for the purpose of the protection of judicial independence, the rules on assessing its jurisdiction, and the admissibility of preliminary questions. The ECJ has adopted a broad meaning to the EU law relevance of the case required for the jurisdiction of the ECJ, while restricting its jurisdiction for the enforcement of effective judicial protection as a constitutional principle. Uncertainties regarding the admissibility of the preliminary questions indicate the limited nature of preliminary ruling procedure in overtaking the role of protecting EU values, as well as the challenges that direct effect of general principles can pose in practice.

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Online: https://aei.pitt.edu/10938/1/appp_elites_publication.pdf HOLLAND, Martin – RYAN, Peter, – NOWAK, Alojzy Z. – CHABAN, Natalia, eds. (2007): The EU through the Eyes of Asia: Media, Public and Elite Perceptions in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Thailand. Warsaw: Asia-Europe Foundation. Online: https://asef.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/EU-through-eyes-Asia_Vol01.pdf KASSEN, Maxat (2018): Understanding Foreign Policy Strategies of Kazakhstan: A Case Study of the Landlocked and Transcontinental Country. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 31(3–4), 314–343. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2018.1520809 Kazinform (2019): Женис Касымбек: Более половины иностранных инвестиций поступили в РК из Евросоюза [Zhenis Kasymbek: More Than Half of Foreign Investments Came to Kazakhstan from the European Union]. “Kazinform” International News Agency, 5 September 2019. 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Online: https://www.inform.kz/ru/kazahstan-i-evropeyskiy-soyuz-rassmotreli-novye-vozmozhnosti-tamozhennogo-sotrudnichestva_a3722193 Khovar (2019a): Встреча Лидера нации Эмомали Рахмона с делегацией Европейского Парламента [Meeting of the Leader of the Nation Emomali Rahmon with the Delegation of the European Parliament]. National Information Agency of Tajikistan “Khovar”, 1 November 2019. Online: https://khovar.tj/rus/2019/11/vstrecha-lidera-natsii-emomali-rahmona-s-delegatsiej-evropejskogo-parlamenta/ Khovar (2019b): Заявление Президента Республики Таджикистан уважаемого Эмомали Рахмона на пресс-конференции после переговоров с Президентом Европейского Совета Дональдом Туском [Statement by the President of the Republic of Tajikistan Honourable Emomali Rahmon at a Press Conference after Talks with the President of the European Council Donald Tusk]. National Information Agency of Tajikistan “Khovar”, 30 May 2019. 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Online: https://khovar.tj/rus/2023/05/sostoyalos-10-e-zasedanie-komiteta-mezhparlamentskogo-sotrudnichestva-respubliki-tadzhikistan-i-evropejskogo-soyuza/ LARSEN, Henrik (2014): The EU as a Normative Power and the Research on External Perceptions: The Missing Link. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 52(4), 896–910. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12109 LUCARELLI, Sonia (2007b): The European Union in the Eyes of Others: Towards Filling a Gap in the Literature. European Foreign Affairs Review, 12(3), 249–270. Online: https://doi.org/10.54648/eerr2007025 LUCARELLI, Sonia (2014): Seen from the Outside: The State of the Art on the External Image of the EU. Journal of European Integration, 36(1), 1–16. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2012.761981 LUCARELLI, Sonia ed. (2007a): Research Report: The External Image of the European Union (Phase One). GARNET Working Paper No. 17/07. MANNERS, Ian (2002): Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms? JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 40(2), 235–258. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5965.00353 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Tajikistan (2015): Concept of the Foreign Policy of the Republic of Tajikistan. Online: https://mfa.tj/en/main/view/988/concept-of-the-foreign-policy-of-the-republic-of-tajikistan MORINI, Mara – PERUZZI, Roberto – POLETTI, Arlo (2010): Eastern Giants: The EU in the Eyes of Russia and China. In LUCARELLI, Sonia – FIORAMONTI, Lorenzo (eds.): External Perceptions of the European Union as a Global Actor. London – New York: Routledge, 32–51. OLIVIER, Gerrit – FIORAMONTI, Lorenzo (2010): The Emerging “Global South”: The EU in the Eyes of India, Brazil and South Africa. In LUCARELLI, Sonia – FIORAMONTI, Lorenzo (eds.): External Perceptions of the European Union as a Global Actor. London – New York: Routledge, 105–119. OSPANOVA, Bakyt – SADRI, Houman A. – YELMURZAYEVA, Raushan – AKHMEDYANOVA, Dana (2016): Mass Media Perception of the European Union in Kazakhstan. Romanian Journal of European Affairs, 16(4), 78–92. RIZOYON, Sherali (2021): Modern Foreign Policy Priorities of Tajikistan. Central Asia’s Affairs, 81, 26–34. Online: https://doi.org/10.52536/caa/vol_8_issue_1_a2 Vremya (2019): ЕС окажет поддержку странам Центральной Азии в предотвращении экстремизма [EU to Support Central Asian Countries in Preventing Extremism]. Vremya, 12 October 2019. Online: https://time.kz/news/politics/2019/09/12/es-okazhet-podderzhku-stranam-tsentralnoj-azii-v-predotvrashhenii-ekstremizma Vremya (2020): Евросоюз выделил 134 млн евро странам Центральной Азии для борьбы с коронакризисом [EU Allocates 134 Million Euros to Central Asian Countries to Fight Corona Crisis]. Vremya, 18 November 2020. Online: https://time.kz/news/mirovye-novosti/2020/11/18/evrosoyuz-vydelil-134-mln-evro-stranam-tsentralnoj-azii-dlya-borby-s-koronakrizisom Vremya (2021a): $23,7 млрд составил товарооборот между Казахстаном и Евросоюзом за 2020 год [$23.7 bn in Trade Turnover between Kazakhstan and the EU in 2020]. Vremya, 11 May 2021. Online: https://time.kz/news/economics/2021/05/11/23-7-mlrd-sostavil-tovarooborot-mezhdu-kazahstanom-i-evrosoyuzom-za-2020-god Vremya (2021b): $160 млрд инвестировал Евросоюз в экономику Казахстана [$160 bn invested by the EU in Kazakhstan’s Economy]. Vremya, 26 November 2021. Online: https://time.kz/news/economics/2021/11/26/160-mlrd-investiroval-evrosoyuz-v-ekonomiku-kazahstana Vremya (2023a): Токаев принял участие во второй встрече глав государств Центральной Азии и Президента Европейского Совета [Tokayev Participated in the Second Meeting of the Heads of State of Central Asia and the President of the European Council]. Vremya, 2 June 2023. Online: https://time.kz/news/politics/2023/06/02/tokaev-prinyal-uchastie-vo-vtoroj-vstreche-glav-gosudarstv-tsentralnoj-azii-i-prezidenta-evropejskogo-soveta Vremya (2023b): $20 млрд превысил за январь-июнь товарооборот между Казахстаном и Евросоюзом [Trade turnover between Kazakhstan and the EU exceeded $20 bn in January–June]. Vremya, 22 August 2023. Online: https://time.kz/news/economics/2023/08/22/20-mlrd-prevysil-za-yanvar-iyun-tovarooborot-mezhdu-kazahstanom-i-evrosoyuzom Vremya (2023c): Порядка $15 млрд составил годовой товарооборот между Казахстаном и Италией [Annual Trade Turnover between Kazakhstan and Italy Totalled about $15 bn]. Vremya, 6 September 2023. 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The research explores the perception of the EU in Central Asian mass media, specifically focusing on Kazakhstan and Tajikistan comparatively. Four news agencies, two from each country, were selected, and news articles related to the EU published between 2019 and 2023 were collected. The guiding question for this study is: How is the EU portrayed in mass media in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan? To answer this question, a mixed-method approach was employed, and collected data were analysed using ATLAS.ti, a computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software. The main finding from this analysis is that in Kazakhstan, the EU is predominantly portrayed as an economic powerhouse, highlighting its significant contributions to economic development through initiatives, partnerships, and investments. Tajikistan’s media emphasises the EU’s role as a security partner and humanitarian supporter, particularly addressing regional challenges originating from Afghanistan. These findings demonstrate that Central Asian mass media primarily regard the EU as an economic power, with limited recognition of its role in security sector reform and trade norms, and its normative power is barely visible in the region.

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