Forced Displacement of Children in the Russian–Ukrainian Conflict
Copyright (c) 2026 Wéber Dalma

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Abstract
The paper explores the issue of forced displacement of Ukrainian children in the context of the Russian–Ukrainian conflict. Drawing on reports from international organisations and research institutes, it provides an overview of how the documented cases can be interpreted within the framework of international law. The paper offers a detailed account of the provisions of international humanitarian law relating to the protection of children with particular attention to forced transfers and deportations. Building on these foundations, it examines the extent to which displacement practices align with established legal standards and where divergences may be observed. Tracing the process of displacement step by step, the paper outlines the relevant legal framework and evaluates how the documented cases have unfolded in light of these norms. Finally, it also discusses the potential implications under international criminal law.
Keywords:
How to Cite
References
Al Jazeera (2024): Russia and Ukraine to Exchange More Children after Qatar-brokered Deal. Al Jazeera, 2024. november 29. Online: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/29/russia-and-ukraine-to-exchange-more-children-after-qatar-brokered-deal
Amnesty International (2022): Ukraine: “Like a Prison Convoy”: Russia’s Unlawful Transfer and Abuse of Civilians in Ukraine during ‘Filtration’. Online: https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur50/6136/2022/en/
Anti-Discrimination Centre Memorial Brussels (2023): Violation of the Rights of Children Taken from Ukraine to Russia and Belarus as a Result of Russian Military Aggression. 2023. június 12. Online: https://adcmemorial.org/en/publications/violation-of-the-rights-of-children-taken-from-ukraine-to-russia-and-belarus-as-a-result-of-russian-military-aggression/
BÍLKOVÁ, Veronika – ŠTEINERTE, Elīna (2024): The Moscow Mechanism Expert Report: On the Arbitrary Deprivation of Liberty of Ukrainian Civilians by the Russian Federation. EJIL: Talk!, 2024. május 23. Online: https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-moscow-mechanism-expert-report-on-the-arbitrary-deprivation-of-liberty-of-ukrainian-civilians-by-the-russian-federation/
BÍLKOVÁ, Veronika – HELLESTVEIT, Cecilie – ŠTEINERTE, Elīna (2023): Report on Violations and Abuses of International Humanitarian and Human Rights Law, War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, Related to the Forcible Transfer and/or Deportation of Ukrainian Children to the Russian Federation. Online: https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/7/7/542751.pdf
GILLICH, Ines (2025): Forced Adoptions of Ukrainian Children from an International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law Perspective. Pace International Law Review, 37(1), 57–88. Online: https://doi.org/10.58948/2331-3536.1442
HENCKAERTS, Jean-Marie (2005): Tanulmány a nemzetközi humanitárius szokásjogról: Hozzájárulás a fegyveres összeütközések során alkalmazandó jogszabályok megértéséhez és tiszteletben tartásához. International Review of the Red Cross, 87(857), 175–212. Online: https://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/external/doc/en/assets/files/other/hun-irrc_857_henckaerts.pdf
HENCKAERTS, Jean-Marie – DOSWALD-BECK, Louise (2005): Customary International Humanitarian Law, Volume I: Rules. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804700
HOFFMANN, Tamás (2017): Az emberiesség elleni bűncselekmények nemzetközi és magyar jogi szabályozása. Állam- és Jogtudomány, 58(1), 29–55. Online: https://epa.oszk.hu/04100/04129/00015/pdf/EPA04129_allam-_es_jogtudomany_2017_1_029-055.pdf
Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine (2023a): Report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/52/62). Online: https://docs.un.org/en/A/HRC/52/62
Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine (2023b): Report to the UN General Assembly (A/78/540). Online: https://docs.un.org/en/A/78/540
International Committee of the Red Cross (2003): Legal Protection of Children in Armed Conflict. Advisory Service on International Humanitarian Law, 02/2003. Online: https://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/document/file_list/children-legal-protection-factsheet.pdf
International Committee of the Red Cross (2022): ICRC’s Central Tracing Agency Bureau for the International Armed Conflict between the Russian Federation and Ukraine: Providing Answers to Families. 2022. június 2. Online: https://www.icrc.org/en/document/central-tracing-agency-missing-persons-ukraine
International Committee of the Red Cross (2025): ICRC Acitvities in Luhansk and Donetsk. Facts & Figures. Online: https://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/media_file/2025-02/2024_ICRC_MOS_Facts%26Figures_EN_LUH_0.pdf
International Committee of the Red Cross [é. n. a]. Protected Persons. Online: https://www.icrc.org/en/law-and-policy/protected-persons
International Committee of the Red Cross [é. n. b]: War Crimes (glossary entry). ICRC Online Casebook. Online: https://casebook.icrc.org/a_to_z/glossary/war-crimes
International Criminal Court (2023): Situation in Ukraine: ICC Judges Issue Arrest Warrants against Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and Maria Alekseyevna Lvova-Belova. Press Release. 2023. március 17. Online: https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-ukraine-icc-judges-issue-arrest-warrants-against-vladimir-vladimirovich-putin-and
M. NYITRAI Péter (2006): Nemzetközi és európai büntetőjog, Budapest: Osiris Kiadó.
Ministry for Development of Communities and Territories of Ukraine (2025): International Community Calls on Russia to Immediately Return Ukrainian Children. 2025. augusztus 5. Online: https://mindev.gov.ua/en/news/mizhnarodna-spilnota-zaklykaie-rosiiu-nehaino-povernuty-ukrainskykh-ditei
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2025): The Impact of the Armed Conflict and Occupation on Children’s Rights in Ukraine (24 February 2022 – 31 December 2024). Online: https://doi.org/10.18356/9789211073850
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2022): The Situation of Human Rights in Ukraine in the Context of the Armed Attack by the Russian Federation, 24 February to 15 May 2022. Online: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/countries/ua/2022-06-29/2022-06-UkraineArmedAttack-EN.pdf
OHCHR [é. n.]: Convention on the Rights of the Child – Ratification Status. Online:
https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/TreatyBodyExternal/Treaty.aspx?Treaty=CRC&Lang=en
ÖDEBRINK, Carina (2025): Russian Abductions and Deportations of Ukrainian Children. Online: https://www.oscepa.org/en/documents/ad-hoc-committees-and-working-groups/parliamentary-support-team-for-ukraine/5294-russian-abductions-and-deportations-of-ukrainian-children-by-carina-oedebrink-eng/file
Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to the UN (2023): Statement by Permanent Representative Vassily Nebenzia. 2023. április 5. Online:
https://www.russiaun.ru/en/news/arria_050423
PICTET, Jean S. (1958): The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Commentary – IV Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross. Online: https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/7d971f/
PLATTNER, Denise (1984): Protection of Children in International Humanitarian Law. International Review of the Red Cross, 24(240), 140–152. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/S002086040006993X
RAYMOND, Nathaniel A. – HATHAWAY, Oona A. – HOWARTH, Caitlin N. – KHOSHNOOD, Kaveh (2024): Intentional, Systematic, & Widespread: Russia’s Program of Coerced Adoption and Fostering of Ukraine’s Children. Yale School of Public Health Humanitarian Research Lab, 2024. december 3. Online: https://medicine.yale.edu/news-article/russias-systematic-program-of-coerced-adoption-and-fostering-of-ukraines-children/
Russia Returns 3 Ukrainian Children With Qatari Mediation (2025). The Moscow Times, 2025. augusztus 21. Online: https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2025/08/21/russia-returns-3-ukrainian-children-with-qatari-mediation-a90316
RussiaUN (2023): Arria formula “Children & Armed Conflict: Ukrainian Crisis. Evacuating Children from Conflict Zone”. YouTube, 2023. április 5.
SANDOZ, Yves – SWINARSKI, Christophe – ZIMMERMANN, Bruno szerk. (1986): Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross. Online: https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llmlp/Commentary_GC_Protocols/Commentary_GC_Protocols.pdf
SAWYER, Ida (2022): Trying to Survive in a Besieged Ukrainian City. Human Rights Watch, 2022. március 9. Online: https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/09/trying-survive-besieged-ukrainian-city
SCHMITT, Michael N. (2022a): Deportation of Ukrainian Civilians to Russia: The Legal Framework. Lieber Institute at West Point – Articles of War, 2022. március 24. Online: https://lieber.westpoint.edu/deportation-ukrainian-civilians-russia-legal-framework/
SCHMITT, Michael N. (2022b): Ukraine Symposium – Protected Zones in International Humanitarian Law. Lieber Institute at West Point – Articles of War, 2022. augusztus 24. Online: https://lieber.westpoint.edu/protected-zones-international-humanitarian-law/
Security Council Report (2020): Arria-formula Meetings: UN Security Council Working Methods. 2020. december 16. Online: https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-security-council-working-methods/arria-formula-meetings.php
STERN, David L. – FRANCIS, Ellen – NAKASHIMA, Ellen – SLATER, Joanna (2022): Ukraine Says Russia Thwarting Wider Civilian Evacuations as Sumy Corridor Opens, Thousands Flee. The Washington Post, 2022. március 8. Online: https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/03/08/evacuation-corridors-ukraine-tuesday/
UNICEF (2022): Guidance for Protecting Displaced and Refugee Children in and Outside of Ukraine. 2022. november 1. Online: https://www.unicef.org/emergencies/guidance-protecting-displaced-children-ukraine
UNICEF (2024): Situation Analysis of Children in Ukraine: 2024. Online: https://www.unicef.org/ukraine/en/media/49206/file/UNICEF_SitAn_2024_ENG.pdf.pdf
United Nations [é. n.]: Definition of Genocide. United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect. Online: https://www.un.org/en/genocide-prevention/definition
United Nations Human Rights Council [é. n.]: Independent International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine. Online: https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/hrc/iicihr-ukraine/index
VARGA Réka (2021): Conflict-related Sexual Violence: Reasons, Applicable Legal Provisions and Humanitarian Response. In KAJTÁR, Gábor – SONNEVEND, Pál (szerk.): A nemzetközi jog, az uniós jog és a nemzetközi kapcsolatok szerepe a 21. században. Tanulmányok Valki László tiszteletére. Budapest: ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, 557–573.
VARGA, Réka (2024): The Russian-Ukrainian War: The Possibilities of Ensuring Accountability. Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies, 64(4), 580–588. Online: https://doi.org/10.1556/2052.2024.00007
VARGA, Réka (2025): Effects of War Crimes in the Rome Statute on the System of National Prosecutions. With Particular Emphasis on Universal Jurisdiction. In BÉRES Nóra (szerk.): The ICC at 25: Lessons Learnt. Budapest-Miskolc: Central European Academic Publishing, 195–211. Online: https://doi.org/10.54237/profnet.2025.nbicc_9
Yale School of Public Health Humanitarian Research Lab (2024): Russia’s Systematic Program of Coerced Adoption and Fostering of Ukraine’s Children. A Conflict Observatory Report, 2024. december 3. https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/a7cf7b6a-3418-4e74-a716-3f049323d728
Yale School of Public Health Humanitarian Research Lab [é. n.]: Help the Humanitarian Research Lab Keep Finding Ukraine’s Abducted Children. Online: https://medicine.yale.edu/lab/khoshnood/give-now/
Nemzetközi szerződések
A népirtás bűntettének megelőzése és megbüntetése tárgyában 1948. évi december 9. napján kelt nemzetközi Egyezmény
A polgári lakosság háború idején való védelmére vonatkozóan Genfben, 1949. augusztus 12-én kelt Egyezmény
Az 1949. augusztus 12-én kötött Genfi Egyezményeket kiegészítő I. Jegyzőkönyv a nemzetközi fegyveres összeütközések áldozatainak védelméről
A gyermek jogairól szóló, New Yorkban, 1989. november 20-án kelt Egyezmény
A Nemzetközi Büntetőbíróság Rómában, 1998. július 17-én elfogadott Statútuma
International Criminal Court (2011): Elements of Crimes. Online: https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/ElementsOfCrimesEng.pdf
Esetjog
Prosecutor v. Radoslav Brđanin, Judgment of 1 September 2004, Case No. IT-99-36-T, Trial Chamber II
Prosecutor v. Vidoje Blagojević and Dragan Jokić, Judgment of 17 January 2005, Case No. IT-02-60-T, Trial Chamber I