Threats to Religious Institutions and Their Defence Options
Copyright (c) 2026 Pócza Virág Napsugár, Lippai Zsolt

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Abstract
Aim: The aim of this study is to provide an overview of the main threats affecting religious (denominational) institutions and to present prevention and protection measures that can contribute to strengthening the security of communities.
Methodology: The study is based on literature and document analysis, the processing of domestic and international case studies, and a comparative and risk analysis approach in examining the threats to denominational institutions and their defence options.
Findings: The study concludes that religious institutions around the world are increasingly vulnerable, so-called civilian targets, and therefore strengthening their protection, adopting a preventive approach, and developing security awareness and institutional cooperation are essential, especially in the absence of a unified domestic strategy.
Value: The value of the study lies in the fact that it provides a comprehensive overview of the security challenges facing denominational institutions, systematises threats and defence options, and offers practical approaches to prevention and strengthening community security.
Keywords:
How to Cite
References
ABC Action News (2018): Robert Bowers: What We Know about Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting Suspect. ABC Action News, 2018. november 1. Online: https://6abc.com/post/pittsburgh-shooting-suspect-robert-bowers-what-we-know-/4565220/
ADL (2018): Deadly Shooting at Pittsburgh Synagogue. ADL, 2018. október 27. Online: https://connecticut.adl.org/resources/article/deadly-shooting-pittsburgh-synagogue
AP (2019): New Zealand Mosque Shooter Brandished White Supremacist Iconography. The Times of Israel, 2019. március 15. Online: https://www.timesofisrael.com/mosque-shooter-brandished-white-supremacist-iconography
AsiaNews (2017): Egypt, Suicide Bomber Who Struck the Church in Alexandria Identified. AsiaNews, 2017. április 13. Online: https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Egypt%2C-suicide-bomber-who-struck-the-church-in-Alexandria-identified-40464.html
Blikk (2022): A 19 éves rablógyilkos brutális módon ölte meg jószívű áldozatát, András atyát. Blikk, 2022. szeptember 11. Online: https://www.blikk.hu/aktualis/krimi/regi-bunugyek-rablogyilkossag-cibakhaza-plebanos-w-renato-21-ev-fegyhaz/sbm965r
DEMBELE, Yonas (2017): Egypt: A Church under Siege – Egyptian Christians and IS. World Watch Research. Online: https://opendoorsanalytical.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/EGYPT-A-Church-under-Siege-WWR-2017.pdf
DOMSCHITZ, Mátyás (2017): 21 év fegyházat kapott a cibakházi plébános gyilkosa. Index, 2017. január 11. Online: https://index.hu/belfold/2017/01/11/21_ev_fegyhazat_kapott_a_cibakhazi_plebanos_gyilkosa/
FORDE, Kaelyn – SHAPIRO, Emily – GUTMAN, Matt – SEYLER, Matt (2018): Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting: What we Know about Alleged Mass Shooter Robert Bowers. ABC News, 2018. október 29. Online: https://abcnews.com/US/pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting-alleged-mass-shooter-robert-bowers/story?id=58794586
GÄRTNER, Heinz (2007): Nemzetközi biztonság. Fogalmak A-tól Z-ig. Budapest: Zrínyi Kiadó.
GYARAKI Réka (2022): A biztonságtudatosság szerepe, avagy kérdések a kiberbiztonságról. Magyar Rendészet, 22(2), 245–261. Online: https://doi.org/10.32577/mr.2022.2.16
HOLLÓ Krisztina (2022): A biztonságtudatosság hiánya, mint kockázati tényező vizsgálata különös tekintettel az adatvédelmi és információbiztonsági szabályok alkalmazására. PhD-disszertáció. Budapest: Nemzeti Közszolgálati Egyetem (NKE), Közigazgatás-tudományi Doktori Iskola. Online: https://doi.org/10.17625/NKE.2024.017
HÖRCHER Ferenc – PONGRÁCZ Alex (2020): Anthologia Philosophico-Politica. Fejezetek a politikai gondolkodás történetéből. Budapest: Nemzeti Közszolgálati Egyetem.
Human Rights Watch (2017): Egypt: Horrific Palm Sunday Bombings. State of Emergency Risks More Abuses. Human Rights Watch, 2017. április 12. Online: https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/04/12/egypt-horrific-palm-sunday-bombings
JASENSZKY Nándor – REGÉNYI Kund – LIPPAI Zsolt (2021): A biztonságtudatosság fogalma, fejlődése nemzetbiztonsági, terrorelhárítási és magánbiztonsági szempontból. Nemzetbiztonsági Szemle, 9(4), 3–17. Online: https://doi.org/10.32561/nsz.2021.4.1
KOUCHAKJI, Katie [é. n]: Gun Control: New Zealand Shows the Way. International Bar Association, é. n. Online_ https://www.ibanet.org/article/3e4700a8-8a7b-4766-b7cc-f59474f4a894
KULI Orsolya (2022): Vádat emeltek a gödöllői templomot felgyújtó férfi ellen. Index, 2022. január 20. Online: https://index.hu/belfold/2022/01/20/bunugy-vademeles-vallas-gorogkatolikus-godollo-gyujtogatas-rongalas/?token=460a1bc15144fa149eb20b16d648b260
LIPPAI Zsolt – THIEME-ESŐ Milán (2020): A szállodák, mint „puha célpontok”. In CSABA Zágon – SZABÓ Andrea (szerk.): Közös kihívások – egykor és most. Tanulmánykötet. Budapest: Magyar Rendészettudományi Társaság Vám- és Pénzügyőri Tagozat, 159–181. Online: https://doi.org/10.37372/mrttvpt.2020.1.9
Mazsihisz (2022): Neonácik újra akcióban: Horogkereszt a Frankel Leó úti zsinagógán. Mazsihisz, 2022. augusztus 14. Online: https://mazsihisz.hu/hirek-a-zsido-vilagbol/mazsihisz-hirek/neonacik-ujra-akcioban-horogkereszt-a-frankel-leo-uti-zsinagogan
New Zealand History [é. n.]: 51 Killed in Mosque Shootings. New Zealand History, é. n. Online: https://nzhistory.govt.nz/51-killed-mosque-shootings
News Agencies (2017): Egypt Declares State of Emergency after Church Bombings. Al Jazeera, 2017. április 9. Online: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/4/9/egypt-declares-state-of-emergency-after-church-bombings
O’BRIEN, Brendan (2023): Pittsburgh Jury Finds Synagogue Attacker Eligible for Death Penalty. Reuters, 2023. július 13. Online: https://www.reuters.com/legal/pittsburgh-jury-finds-synagogue-attacker-eligible-death-penalty-2023-07-13/
PÉK Richárd Tamás (2023): A terrorizmus fogalma a nemzetközi büntető anyagi jogban. PhD-disszertáció. Budapest: Nemzeti Közszolgálati Egyetem (NKE), Rendészettudományi Doktori Iskola. Online: https://doi.org/10.17625/NKE.2024.029
PUSKAR, Gene (2018): Gunman Attacks Pittsburgh Synagogue, Killing 11 People. PBS News, 2018. október 27. Online: https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/pittsburgh-synagogue-shooter-opened-fire-during-baby-naming-ceremony
QASEM, Abdelfattah et al. (2020): Ko tō tātou kāinga tēnei. Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Terrorist Attack on Christchurch Masjidain on 15 March 2019. Online: https://gg.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2021-06/RC%20145%20Terrorist%20Attack%20on%20Christchurch%20Masjidain.pdf
RENSHAW, Jarett (2018): Who is Robert Bowers, the Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooting Suspect? Reuters, 2018. október 29. Online: https://www.reuters.com/article/world/who-is-robert-bowers-the-pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting-suspect-idUSKCN1N31SJ
Reuters (2017): Egypt’s Ministry of Interior Identifies Tanta Church Suicide Bomber- State TV. Reuters, 2017. április 13. Online: https://www.reuters.com/article/markets/commodities/egypt-s-ministry-of-interior-identifies-tanta-church-suicide-bomber-state-tv-idUSL8N1HL4YK/
Reuters (2019): What We Know about the New Zealand Mosque Shootings and What Comes Next. Reuters, 2019. március 15. Online: https://www.reuters.com/article/world/what-we-know-about-the-new-zealand-mosque-shootings-and-what-comes-next-idUSKCN1QW1P0/
Reuters (2023): Pittsburgh Synagogue Shooter Sentenced to Death by Judge. Reuters, 2023. augusztus 3. Online: https://www.reuters.com/legal/pittsburgh-synagogue-shooter-be-sentenced-death-by-judge-2023-08-03/
ROHAN, Brian (2017): Egyptian Christians Left to Bury their Dead after Church Bombings. America, 2017. április 10. Online: https://www.americamagazine.org/politics-society/2017/04/10/egyptian-christians-left-bury-their-dead-after-church-bombings
Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Attack on Christchurch Mosques on 15 March 2019 [é. n.]: 5. What People Told Us about the National Security System and Countering-Terrorism Effort. Online: https://christchurchattack.royalcommission.nz/publications/v2-summary-of-submissions/what-people-told-us-about-the-national-security-system-and-countering-terrorism-effort
Saferwatch [é. n.]: Keeping the Faith Safely: Security Measures for Churches. Saferwatch, [é. n.]. Online: https://www.saferwatchapp.com/blog/security-measures-for-places-of-worship/
SAID, Omar (2017): Palm Sunday Bombings: A Security Failure and the Islamic State’s Expansion into the Mainland. Madamasr, 2017. április 11. Online: https://www.madamasr.com/en/2017/04/11/feature/politics/palm-sunday-bombings-a-security-failure-and-the-islamic-states-expansion-into-the-mainland
SZABÓ Lajos (2021): Az objektumok biztonsága és az objektumvédelem speciális területe a megelőző védelem. PhD-disszertáció. Budapest: Óbudai Egyetem Biztonságtudományi Doktori Iskola.
Te Tari Pūreke (2019): 2019 Firearms Law Changes. Online: https://www.firearmssafetyauthority.govt.nz/news-and-publications/firearms-law-changes/2019-firearms-law-changes
U.S. Department of Justice (2018): Pennsylvania Man Charged with Federal Hate Crimes for Tree of Life Synagogue Shooting. U.S. Department of Justice, 2018. október 31. Online: https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/pr/pennsylvania-man-charged-federal-hate-crimes-tree-life-synagogue-shooting
U.S. Department of Justice (2023): Jury Recommends Sentence of Death for Pennsylvania Man Convicted for Tree of Life Synagogue Shooting. U.S. Department of Justice, 2023. augusztus 2. Online: https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/pr/jury-recommends-sentence-death-pennsylvania-man-convicted-tree-life-synagogue-shooting
VÁRHALMI A. Miklós (2009): A hírszerzés, felderítés szerepe és jelentősége a XXI. századi EU számára. Hadtudományi Szemle, 2(1), 51–59.
WESTBROOK, Tom – GREENFIELD, Charlotte (2019): NZ Bans Military Type Semi-Automatic Weapons Used in Mosque Massacre. Reuters, 2019. március 21. Online: https://www.reuters.com/article/world/nz-bans-military-type-semi-automatic-weapons-used-in-mosque-massacre-idUSKCN1R2028
WORKMAN, Michael – HUTCHEON, Stephen – MCGRATH, Pat (2019): Christchurch Shooter Brenton Tarrant was a Personal Trainer in Grafton. ABC News, 2019. március 15. Online: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-15/christchurch-shooting-brenton-tarrant-what-we-know/10904744