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Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik. Online: https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/253063/1/2006RP12.pdf BURES, Oldrich (2006): EU Counterterrorism Policy: A Paper Tiger? Terrorism and Political Violence, 18(1), 57–78. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550500174905 Council of the European Union (2005): The European Union Counter-Terrorism Strategy. ST 14469/4/05 REV 4. Brussels, 30 November 2005. Online: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST%2014469%202005%20REV%204/EN/pdf Council of the European Union (2024a): The Role of Climate Change and Environmental Concerns in Violent Extremist and Terrorist Radicalisation in the EU (No. 5982/24). 30 January 2024. Online: https://www.statewatch.org/media/4188/eu-ctc-violent-environmental-extremism-twp-paper-5982-24.pdf Council of the European Union (2024b): Conclusions on Future Priorities for Strengthening the Joint Counterterrorism Efforts. ST 16820/24. 12 December 2024. Online: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-16820-2024-INIT/en/pdf Council of the European Union (2024c): Conclusions on Reinforcing External-Internal Connections in the Fight against Terrorism and Violent Extremism. 16 December 2024. Online: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-16175-2024-INIT/en/pdf D’AMATO, Silvia – TERLIZZI, Andrea (2022): Strategic European Counterterrorism? An Empirical Analysis. European Security, 31(4), 540–557. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2022.2029847 DAVIES, Garth – WU, Edith – FRANK, Richard (2021): A Witch’s Brew of Grievances. The Potential Effects of COVID-19 on Radicalization to Violent Extremism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 46(11), 2327–2350. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.1923188 European Commission (2020): A Counter-Terrorism Agenda for the EU: Anticipate, Prevent, Protect, Respond. COM(2020) 795 final. Brussels, 9 December 2020. European Commission (2025): ProtectEU: a European Internal Security Strategy. COM/2025/148 final. Online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52025DC0148 European Parliament (2018): Report on findings and recommendations of the Special Committee on Terrorism. A8-0374/2018. Online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-8-2018-0374_EN.html European Parliamentary Research Service (2025): The New European Internal Security Strategy: ProtectEU. EPRS BRI(2025)775847. Online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2025/775847/EPRS_BRI(2025)775847_EN.pdf Europol (2023): European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend report 2023 (TE-SAT). The Hague: Europol. Online: https://www.europol.europa.eu/publication-events/main-reports/european-union-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-2023-te-sat Europol (2024): European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) 2024. The Hague: Europol. Online: https://www.europol.europa.eu/publication-events/main-reports/european-union-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-2024-eu-te-sat Europol (2025): European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) 2025. The Hague: Europol. Online: https://www.europol.europa.eu/publication-events/main-reports/european-union-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-2025-eu-te-sat Global Terrorism Database (2021). Online: https://www.start.umd.edu/data-tools/GTD GUNARATNA, Rohan – OREG, Aviv (2010): Al Qaeda’s Organizational Structure and Its Evolution. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 33(12), 1043–1078. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2010.523860 HOFFMAN, Bruce (2006): Combating Al Qaeda and the Militant Islamic Threat (Testimony No. CT-255). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. Online: https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/testimonies/2006/RAND_CT255.pdf JORDAN, Javier – MAÑAS, M. Fernando – HORSBURGH, Nicola (2008): Strengths and Weaknesses of Grassroot Jihadist Networks: The Madrid Bombings. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31(1), 17–39. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100701767148 KIRKWOOD, Lea T. (2006): The European Union Counter-Terrorism Strategy: Origins, Problems, and Prospects. Master’s Thesis. Monterey: Naval Postgraduate School. KOEHLER, Daniel (2018): Recent Trends in German Right-Wing Violence and Terrorism: What are the Contextual Factors behind ‘Hive Terrorism’? Perspectives on Terrorism, 12(6), 72–88. MELHUISH, Francesca – HEATH-KELLY, Charlotte (2022): Fighting Terrorism at the Local Level: the European Union, Radicalisation Prevention and the Negotiation of Subsidiarity. European Security, 31(2), 313–333. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09662839.2021.2009458 MONAR, Jörg (2007): Common Threat and Common Response? The European Union’s Counter-Terrorism Strategy and its Problems. Government and Opposition, 42(3), 292–313. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2007.00225.x NESSER, Petter (2019): Military Interventions, Jihadi Networks, and Terrorist Entrepreneurs: How the Islamic State Terror Wave Rose So High in Europe. CTC Sentinel, 12(3), 15–21. Online: https://ctc.westpoint.edu/military-interventions-jihadi-networks-terrorist-entrepreneurs-islamic-state-terror-wave-rose-high-europe/ PANTUCCI, Raffaello (2010): A Contest to Democracy? How the UK Has Responded to the Current Terrorist Threat. Democratization, 17(2), 251–271. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/13510341003588674 RENARD, Thomas (2025): Adolescent Radicalisation: It’s Not Just on Netflix. European Comission, 2025. április 29. Online: https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/home/items/880571/en VAN GINKEL, Bibi – ENTENMANN, Eva eds. (2016): The Foreign Fighters Phenomenon in the European Union. Profiles, Threats & Policies. ICCT Research Paper. The Hague: ICCT. VIDINO, Lorenzo – MARONE, Francesco – ENTENMANN, Eva (2017): Fear Thy Neighbor: Radicalization and Jihadist Attacks in the West. Milan: Ledizioni LediPublishing. Online: https://extremism.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs5746/files/FearThyNeighbor%20RadicalizationandJihadistAttacksintheWest.pdf WALLNER, Claudia  WHITE, Jessica (2022): The Prince, the Judge and the Paratrooper: Germany’s Foiled Far-Right Coup. RUSI, 2022. december 12. Online: https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/prince-judge-and-paratrooper-germanys-foiled-far-right-coup#:~:text=The%20group%20is%20apparently%20part,appears%20to%20have%20taken%20inspiration WOJCIECHOWSKI, Sebastian – WEJKSZNER, Artur (2025): The New Face of Terrorist Threat in the European Union. Analysis of the EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report 2024 (TE-SAT) and other sources. Terroryzm, 7(7), 307–326. Online: https://doi.org/10.4467/27204383ter.25.035.21812 Jogi forrás Regulation (EU) 2021/784 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2021 on addressing the dissemination of terrorist content online" ["issueId"]=> int(637) ["abstract"]=> array(2) { ["en_US"]=> string(2272) "

Introduction: Over the past two decades, the European Union’s counter-terrorism policy has been articulated through several comprehensive strategic documents that responded to different security challenges and institutional contexts. However, it remains insufficiently explored to what extent these documents represent genuine paradigm shifts and what structural logic has guided the evolution of the EU’s approach.

Objectives: The aim of this study is to provide a comparative analysis of the EU’s counter-terrorism strategies, with a particular focus on changes in their strategic orientation.

Methodology: The research is based on qualitative document analysis of the European Union Counter-Terrorism Strategy (2005), the Counter-Terrorism Agenda (2020), the 2024 Council Conclusions, and the 2025 ProtectEU Strategy. Within a historical approach grounded in European terrorism trends, the study compares the circumstances of their adoption, threat perceptions, and strategic objectives.

Results: The analysis demonstrates that the three strategic periods represent distinct security policy paradigms. The 2005 strategy primarily adopted a reactive, state-centred, and attack-focused approach, shaped by the impact of 9/11 and the Madrid and London attacks. The 2020 Counter-Terrorism Agenda responded to the growing importance of radicalisation, prevention, and the online environment within a more integrated institutional framework. The 2024–2025 documents interpret terrorism within the broader context of hybrid threats, geopolitical instability, and technological risks, placing emphasis on resilience, critical infrastructure protection, and societal preparedness. Accordingly, the strategic logic has shifted from a traditional counter-terrorism approach towards comprehensive security policy integration.

Conclusion: The study concludes that the EU’s counter-terrorism policy has not merely evolved incrementally but has undergone fundamental paradigm shifts in several phases. The focus has moved from reaction to prevention, and subsequently to complex threat management. A particularly important direction for future research is the examination of terrorism within the broader system of complex security threats.

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Bevezetés: Az Európai Unió terrorizmus elleni politikája az elmúlt két évtizedben több átfogó stratégiai dokumentumban öltött testet, amelyek eltérő biztonsági kihívásokra és intézményi környezetre reflektáltak. Ugyanakkor kevéssé feltárt, hogy ezek a dokumentumok mennyiben képviselnek valódi paradigmaváltást, és milyen strukturális logika mentén alakult át az uniós megközelítés.

Célkitűzések: A tanulmány célja az EU terrorizmus elleni stratégiáinak összehasonlító elemzése, különös tekintettel azok stratégiai irányváltásaira.

Módszertan: A kutatás kvalitatív dokumentumelemzésen alapul, amely az EU Terrorizmusellenes Stratégia 2005 (The European Union Counter-Terrorism Strategy), az EU Terrorizmusellenes Program 2020 (EU Counter-Terrorism Agenda), a 2024-es tanácsi következtetések és a 2025-ös ProtectEU stratégia (EU belső biztonsági stratégia) szövegének tartalmi vizsgálatára épül. Az elemzés során az európai terrorizmus trendjeire épülő történeti megközelítés keretében kerül sor a stratégiai dokumentumok keletkezési körülményeinek, fenyegetésértelmezésének és célrendszerének összehasonlítására.

Eredmények: Az elemzés kimutatja, hogy a három korszak eltérő biztonságpolitikai paradigmákat testesít meg. A 2005-ös Stratégia alapvetően reaktív, államközpontú és terrorcselekmény-fókuszú megközelítést alkalmazott, a 9/11 és a madridi, illetve londoni merényletek hatására. A 2020-as Terrorizmusellenes Program már a radikalizáció, a megelőzés és az online tér szerepének erősödésére reagált, integráltabb intézményi keretben. A 2024–2025-ös dokumentumok pedig a terrorizmust a hibrid fenyegetések, geopolitikai instabilitás és technológiai kockázatok összefüggésrendszerében értelmezik, hangsúlyt helyezve a reziliencia, az infrastruktúra-védelem és a társadalmi ellenálló képesség erősítésére. A stratégiai logika így a klasszikus terrorellenes megközelítéstől a komplex biztonságpolitikai integráció irányába mozdult el.

Konklúzió: A tanulmány megállapítja, hogy az EU terrorizmus elleni politikája nem pusztán evolúciós módon fejlődött és frissült, hanem több szakaszban alapvető szemléletváltáson ment keresztül. A hangsúly a reakcióról a megelőzésre, majd a komplex fenyegetéskezelésre helyeződött át. A jövőbeni kutatások számára különösen fontos irány a terrorizmus komplex fenyegetések rendszerében való elhelyezkedésének vizsgálata.

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tanársegés, mb. tanszékvezető

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Online: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2209&context=gc_etds" ["issueId"]=> int(637) ["abstract"]=> array(1) { ["en_US"]=> string(2349) "

Objective: Previous research into public trust in the police has focused on cooperativeness as an outcome massively influenced by trust. Nevertheless, our understanding of the relationship between different types of trust and citizens’ propensity to support policing remains insufficient, especially regarding personal risk. This study examines how perceptions of the police as fair, effective and community-oriented organisation influence cooperation. It also explores whether trust remains a predictor in instances where assistance involves higher personal or social costs.

Methodology: A mixed-methods approach was used, including a survey of 319 residents, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM), and follow-up focus groups to identify the barriers residents encountered when trying to collaborate in situations involving heightened risk. EFA is a method of uncovering hidden patterns in people’s responses. When a questionnaire contains many items, the answers often cluster together in meaningful ways. EFA identifies these clusters and shows which items belong to the same underlying concept. Structural equation modelling (SEM) shows how different concepts are connected, which concepts lead to specific outcomes, and how strong each connection is. The quantitative analysis found three dimensions of trust: procedural justice, distributive justice and police effectiveness, alongside community commitment. Cooperation proved to be a two-factor structure consisting of obedience and voluntary assistance to the police.

Findings: Trust was only a significant predictor of cooperative behaviour in low-risk situations involving minor incidents or transgressions, and where little personal vulnerability was evident. Willingness to report violations of more serious rules (assaults, drug sales or corruption) did not scale similarly with trust. Common barriers related to fear of reprisal, lack of trust in the system and possible social or professional consequences were supported by qualitative data.

Value: This research demonstrates that trust can promote cooperation, but only when individuals do not feel personally vulnerable. It highlights the need for contemporary campaigns that promote secure, responsible institutional environments to increase public participation.

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