Stigmatisation or Destigmatisation?
An Analysis of Newspapers Reporting on Mental Health Problems in Malaysia
Copyright (c) 2023 Yang Lai Fong
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Abstract
Mental health has emerged as an international priority to secure health, well-being and human development. Media are important sources of health information, and this gives media a powerful voice in contributing to the creation, perpetuation, evolution and/or attenuation of stigma towards mental illness. Through employing stigmatisation as the theoretical framework and qualitative content analysis as the research method, this study examined the coverage of mental health problems during the Covid-19 pandemic by Malaysian legacy and online newspapers. Six dimensions of stigma (concealability, origin, course, disruptiveness, aesthetics and peril) were examined and it was found that individual level of origin and peril were the most prominent dimensions of stigma found in the reporting. In addition, the newspapers focused on promoting mental health awareness and literacy in their destigmatisation effort, while reflecting either a positive or neutral valence in their coverage. The implications of the findings were discussed with regard to the role of media in reporting mental health problems and destigmatisation of mental illness.
Keywords:
How to Cite
References
Adamson, G. – Donaldson, L. – Whitley, R. (2017): Sharing Recovery Stories: Network Gatekeeping of Online News about Mental Illness. Digital Journalism, 5(7), 903–918. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2016.1224671
AdQrate (2020): Newspaper. Online: http://www.adqrate.com/newspaper/
Aneshensel, C. S. – Phelan, J. C. – Bierman, A. (2013): The Sociology of Mental Health: Surveying the Field. In Aneshensel, C. S. – Phelan, J. C. – Bierman, A. (eds.): Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health. New York: Springer. 1–22. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_1
Aseanplus News (2020a): Singapore: ‘Selfless Father’ Who Killed Mentally Ill Daughter Freed from Jail after Sentence Backdated. The Star, 13 October 2020. Online: https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2020/10/13/singapore-039selfless-father039-who-killed-mentally-ill-daughter-freedfrom-jail-after-sentence-backdated
Aseanplus News (2020b): Mentally Ill Back in Chains. The Star, 07 October 2020. Online: https://www.thestar.com.my/aseanplus/aseanplus-news/2020/10/07/mentally-ill-back-in-chains
Assarroudi, A. – Nabavi, F. H. – Armat, M. R. – Ebadi, A. – Vaismoradi, M. (2018): Directed Qualitative Content Analysis: The Description and Elaboration of Its Underpinning Methods and Data Analysis Process. Journal of Research in Nursing, 23(1), 42–55. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987117741667
Baharuddin, S. S. S. – Hamid, A. H. (2014): Framing of Mental Health Issues: A Qualitative Study of Women’s Magazines in Malaysia. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(1), 19–30.
Bernama (2020): Universities Must Activate Buddy System to Detect Students with Problems. Malaysiakini, 19 April 2020. Online: https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/521412
Carod-Artal, F. J. (2017): Social Determinants of Mental Health. In Bahrer-Kohler, S. – Carod-Artal, F. J. (eds.): Global Mental Health. Prevention and Promotion. New York: Springer. 33–60. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59123-0_4
Choi, K. R. – Heilemann, M. V. – Fauer, A. – Mead, M. (2020): A Second Pandemic: Mental Health Spillover from the Novel Coronavirus (Covid-19). Journal of the American Psychiatric Burses Association, 26(4), 340–343. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390320919803
Chong, S. T. – Mohamad, M. S. – Er, A. C. (2013): The Mental Health Development in Malaysia: History, Current Issue and Future Development. Asian Social Science, 9(6), 1–8. Online: https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v9n6p1
Cloutier, C. – Ravasi, D. (2021): Using Tables to Enhance Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research. Strategic Organization, 19(1), 113–133. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1476127020979329
Conrad, P. – Slodden, C. (2013): The Medicalization of Mental Disorder. In Aneshensel, C. S. – Phelan, J. C. – Bierman, A. (eds.): Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health. New York: Springer. 61–74. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_4
Dąbrowska, K. – Wieczorek, Ł. (2020): Perceived Social Stigmatisation of Gambling Disorders and Coping with Stigma. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 37(3), 279–297. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1455072520902342
Day, E. N. – Edgren, K. – Eshleman, A. (2007): Measuring Stigma toward Mental Illness: Development and Application of the Mental Illness Stigma Scale. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(10), 2191–2219. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00255.x
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th edition. Washington: American Psychiatric Association.
Dorfman, L. – Krasnow, I. D. (2014): Public Health and Media Advocacy. Annual Review of Public Health, 35(4), 293–306. Online: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032013-182503
Dunn, P. K. (2022): Scientific Research and Methodology. An Introduction to Quantitative Research in Science and Health. Online: https://bookdown.org/pkaldunn/SRM-Textbook
Elo, S. – Kaariainen, M. – Kanste, O. – Polkki, T. – Utrianen, K. – Kyngas, H. (2014): Qualitative Content Analysis: A Focus on Trustworthiness. SAGE Open, 4(3), 1–19. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014522633
Elzamzamy, K. – Wadoo, O. (2020): Media and Mental Health. In Haque, A. – Gilstrap, L. L. – Ghuloum, S. (eds.): Mental Health in Qatar. Challenges and Prospects. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 314–334.
Foster, S. – O’Mealey, M. (2021): Socioeconomic Status and Mental Illness Stigma: The Impact of Mental Illness Controllability Attributions and Personal Responsibility Judgments. Journal of Mental Health, 31(1), 58–65. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2021.1875416
Goffman, E. (1963): Stigma. Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Goffman, E. (2006): Selections from Stigma. In Davis, L. J. (ed.): The Disability Studies Reader. New York: Routledge. 131–140. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315680668
Hanafiah, A. N. – Van Bortel, T. (2015). A Qualitative Exploration of the Perspectives of Mental Health Professionals on Stigma and Discrimination of Mental Illness in Malaysia. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 9(1), 1–12. Online: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-015-0002-1
Hansson, L. (2017): Mental Health and Stigma. In Bahrer-Kohler, S. – Carod-Artal, F. J. (eds.): Global Mental Health. Prevention and Promotion. New York: Springer. 71–78. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59123-0_7
Henderson, L. – Hilton, S. (2018): The Media and Public Health: Where Next for Critical Analysis? Critical Public Health, 28(4), 373–376. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/09581596.2018.1482663
Hidayat, M. T. – Lawn, S. – Muir-Cochrane, E. – Oster, C. (2020): The Use of Pasung for People with Mental Illness: A Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 14(1), 1–21. Online: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-020-00424-0
Horwitz, A. V. (2010): An Overview of Sociological Perspectives on the Definitions, Causes, and Responses to Mental Health and Illness. In Scheid, T. L. – Brown, T. N. (eds.): A Handbook of the Study of Mental Health. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6–19. Online: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511984945.004
Hsieh, K. Y. – Kao, W. T. – Li, D. J. – Lu, W. C. – Tsai, K. Y. – Chen, W. J. – Chou, L. S. – Huang, J. J. – Hsu, S. T. – Chou, H. C. (2021): Mental Health in Biological Disasters: From SARS to Covid-19. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 67(5), 576–586. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020944200
Hsieh, H. F. – Shannon, S. E. (2005): Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
Ismail, M. A. (2020): Three Holy Practices for Mental Wellbeing. Harian Metro, 23 October 2020. Online: https://www.hmetro.com.my/addin/2020/10/633697/tiga-amalan-suci-jiwa
Jeon, M. – Furnham, A. (2017): Mental Health Literacy in South Korea. International Journal of Culture and Mental Health, 10(4), 353–366. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/17542863.2017.1322623
Jones, E. E. Farina, A. – Hastorf, A. H. – Markus, H. – Miller, D. T. – Scott, R. A. (1984): Social Stigma. The Psychology of Marked Relationships. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Jorm, A. F. – Korten, A. E. – Jacomb, P. A. – Christensen, H. – Rodgers, B. – Pollitt, P. (1997): “Mental Health Literacy”: A Survey of the Public’s Ability to Recognise Mental Disorders and Their Beliefs about the Effectiveness of Treatment. Medical Journal of Australia, 166(4), 182–186. Online: https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1997.tb140071.x
Kalisova, L. – Michalec, J. – Hadjipapanicolaou, D. – Raboch, J. (2018): Factors Influencing the Level of Self-Stigmatisation in People with Mental Illness. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 64(4), 374–380. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764018766561
Lee, L. T. (2020): Guidelines for Mental Health at Work. The Star, 19 February 2020. Online: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2020/04/27/lee-lam-thye-osh-professionals-play-important-role-inensuring-physical-mental-health-of-workers
Lee, S. L. E. (2020, January 3). Is your teen addicted to gaming? It could be a mental disorder. The Star. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/health/2020/01/03/get-help-for-your-teen-withgaming-addiction
Lerner, M. J. (1965): Evaluation of Performance as a Function of Performer’s Reward and Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1(4), 355–360. Online: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0021806
Link, B. G. – Phelan, J. C. (2001): Conceptualizing Stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363–385. Online: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
Link, B. G. – Phelan, J. C. (2013): Labeling and stigma. In Aneshensel, C. S. – Phelan, J. C. – Bierman, A. (eds.): Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health. New York: Springer. 525–541. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_25
Loo, P. W. – Wong, S. – Furnham, A. (2012): Mental Health Literacy: A Cross-Cultural Study from Britain, Hong Kong and Malaysia. Asia‐Pacific Psychiatry, 4(2), 113–125. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-5872.2012.00198.x
Lovrenciear, J. D. (2020): Address Covid-19’s Social, Emotional and Mental Damages. Malaysiakini, 13 November. Online: https://www.malaysiakini.com/letters/550755
Ma, Z. – Nan, X. (2018): Role of Narratives in Promoting Mental Illnesses Acceptance. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 26(3), 196–209. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2018.1471925
Mayring, P. (2020): Qualitative Content Analysis: Demarcation, Varieties, Developments. Forum: Social Research, 20(3). Online: https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-20.3.3343
McCrae, N. – Sharif, L. – Norman, I. (2019): Media Portrayals of Mental Disorder in Saudi Arabia: A Review of Popular Newspapers. Transcultural Psychiatry, 56(2), 428–442. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461518819117
McGinty, E. E. – Webster, D. W. – Jarlenski, M. – Barry, C. L. (2014): News Media Framing of Serious Mental Illness and Gun Violence in the United States, 1997–2012. American Journal of Public Health, 104(3), 406–413. Online: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301557
Mohanraj, A. (2020): Suicide Survivors Should Be Treated with Compassion. The Star, 08 August 2020. Online: https://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/letters/2020/08/08/suicide-survivors-should-be-treatedwith-compassion
Murudi, T. – Ting, S. H. (2019): Framing of the 1MDB Financial Scandal: A Comparative Study of the Coverage by The Star and Malaysiakini. SEARCH Journal of Media and Communication Research, 11(2), 113–126. Online: https://fslmjournals.taylors.edu.my/wp content/uploads/SEARCH/SEARCH-2019-11-2/SEARCH-2019-P7-11-2.pdf
Myrick, J. G. – Pavelko, R. L. (2017): Examining Differences in Audience Recall and Reaction between Mediated Portrayals of Mental Illness as Trivializing Versus Stigmatizing. Journal of Health Communication, 22(11), 876–884. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2017.1367338
O’Brien, A. (2020): Reporting on Mental Health Difficulties, Mental Illness and Suicide: Journalists’ Accounts of the Challenges. Journalism, 22(12), 3031–3047. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920903855
Pachankis, J. E. – Hatzenbuehler, M. L. – Wang, K. – Burton, C. L. – Crawford, F. W. – Phelan, J. C. – Link, B. G. (2018): The Burden of Stigma on Health and Well-Being: A Taxonomy of Concealment, Course, Disruptiveness, Aesthetics, Origin, and Peril Across 93 Stigmas. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(4), 451–474. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217741313
Parrott, S. – Billings, A. C. – Hakim, S. D. – Gentile, P. (2020): From #endthestigma to #realman: Stigma-Challenging Social Media Responses to NBA Players’ Mental Health Disclosures. Communication Reports, 33(3), 148–160. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/08934215.2020.1811365
Pūras, D. (2017): Human Rights and the Practice of Medicine. Public Health Reviews, 38(1), 1–5. Online: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-017-0054-7
Raaj, S. – Navanathan, S. – Tharmaselan, M. – Lally, J. (2021): Mental Disorders in Malaysia: An Increase in Lifetime Prevalence. BJ Psych International, 18(4), 97–99. Online: https://doi.org/10.1192/bji. 2021.4
Ramli, F. Z. A – Tilse, C. – Wilson, J. (2017): Qualitative Interviewing of Malay Caregivers: Stigma and Mental Health Problems of Older Adults. International Journal of Culture and Mental Health, 10(2), 127–135. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/17542863.2016.1259338
Rasdi, M. T. M. (2020): When Panic Disorder Hits a Nation. The Star, 04 August 2020. Online: https://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/columnists/over-the-top/2020/08/04/when-panic-disorder-hits-a-nation
Razali, Z. A. – Sanip, S. (2018): Mental Illness Portrayal in Media: A Summative Content Analysis of Malaysian Newspapers. International Journal of Business and Society, 19(2), 324–331. Online: http://www.ijbs.unimas.my/images/repository/pdf/Vol19-S2-paper11.pdf
Rubin, A. T. (2021): Rocking Qualitative Social Science. An Irreverent Guide to Rigorous Research. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781503628243
Rüsch, N. – Todd, A. R. – Bodenhausen, G. V. – Corrigan, P. W. (2010): Do People with Mental Illness Deserve What They Get? Links Between Meritocratic Worldviews and Implicit Versus Explicit Stigma. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 260(8), 617–625. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-010-0111-4
SimilarWeb (2020: August 2020 Overview. Online: https://www.similarweb.com/website/malaysiakini.com/
Sin Chew Daily (2020a): Suicide Can Be Prevented. Sin Chew Daily, 12 September 2020. Online: https://www.sinchew.com.my/20200912/%E3%80%90%E5%85%B3%E5%BF%83%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E7%97%85%E6%82%A3%EF%BC%8F01%E3%80%91%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E7%97%85%E5%8F%AA%E6%98%AF%E4%B8%80%E7%A7%8D%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E7%96%BE%E7%97%85-%E7%A4%BE/
Sin Chew Daily (2020b): Stress and Immunity. Sin Chew Daily, 19 July 2020. Online: https://www.sinchew.com.my/20200719/%E8%96%9B%E6%B1%89%E9%A3%9E%EF%BC%9A%E4%B8%8D%E4%BB%85%E5%8D%B1%E5%AE%B3%E5%81%A5%E5%BA%B7%E2%80%A7%E5%8E%8B%E5%8A%9B%E4%BC%A4%E5%AE%B3-%E5%8F%AF%E6%AF%81%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E5%8A%9B/
Temmann, L. J. – Wiedicke, A. – Schaller, S. – Scherr, S. – Reifegerste, D. (2021): A Systematic Review of Responsibility Frames and Their Effects in the Health Context. Journal of Health Communication, 26(12), 828–838. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2021.2020381; DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2021.2020381
The Star (2020): Right of Mentally Ill Patients to Privacy. The Star, 14 February 2020. Online: https://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/letters/2020/02/14/right-of-mentally-ill-patients-to-privacy
Torales, J. – O’Higgins, M. – Castaldelli-Maia, J. M. – Ventriglio, A. (2020): The Outbreak of COVID-19 Coronavirus and its Impact on Global Mental Health. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(4), 317–320. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020915212
Tso, I. F. – Park, S. (2020): Alarming Levels of Psychiatric Symptoms and the Role of Loneliness during the Covid-19 Epidemic: A Case Study of Hong Kong. Psychiatry Research, 293. Online: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113423
Van Beveren, L. – Rutten, K. – Hensing, G. – Spyridoula, N. – Schønning, V. – Axelsson, M. – Bockting, C. – Buysse, A. – De Neve, I. – Desmet, M. – Dewaele, A. – Giovazolias, T. – Hannon, D. – Kafetsios, K. – Meganck, R. – Øverland, S. – Triliva, S. – Vandamme, J. (2020): A Critical Perspective on Mental Health News in Six European Countries: How Are “Mental Health/Illness” and “Mental Health Literacy” Rhetorically Constructed? Qualitative Health Research, 30(9), 1362–1378. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732320912409
Vishwanath, A. (2014): Negative Public Perceptions of Juvenile Diabetics: Applying Attribution Theory to Understand the Public’s Stigmatizing Views. Health Communication, 29(5), 516–526. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2013.777685
Wahl, O. F. (2003): News Media Portrayal of Mental Illness: Implications for Public Policy. American Behavioral Scientist, 46(12), 1594–1600. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764203254615
Wimmer, R. D. – Dominick, J. R. (2006): Mass Media Research: An Introduction. Belmont: Wadsworth.
Zeng, Y. T. (2020): Listening with Empathy: Mental Disorders Are Like Physical Illnesses. Sin Chew Daily, 29 February 2020. Online: https://easily.sinchew.com.my/node/2489/%E8%81%86%E5%90%AC%E5%90%8C%E7%90%86-%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E%E7%97%85%E5%A6%82%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E7%97%85%E4%B8%8D%E5%8F%AF%E8%80%BB
Zucker, L. R. (2019): Cultivating Courage, Compassion, and Cultural Sensitivity in News Reporting of Mental Health during Challenging Times. In Parekh, R. – Trinh, N. T. (eds.): The Massachusetts General Hospital Textbook on Diversity and Cultural Sensitivity in Mental Health. New York: Springer. 75–90. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20174-6_5