Security Awareness among Higher Education Students Based on the SAM Model

Abstract

The rapid development of the digital environment and the increasing number of cyber attacks have made the human factor the most vulnerable element of cybersecurity. Measuring users' security awareness is crucial for adequate protection and developing targeted education programs. This research aims to present and empirically test the Security Awareness Model (SAM), which builds on the previous HAIS-Q model by integrating the Knowledge-Attitude-Behaviour dimensions across ten professional areas, including password use, web security, personal data protection, and incident management. The pilot study, conducted in the spring of 2025, was based on the responses of 132 higher education students and aimed to test the reliability and validity of the model's constructs. Based on the results, all three component dimensions contribute significantly to general security knowledge, but some items need to be reworded to improve measurement accuracy. The students agreed on classic security risks (e.g., unknown USB devices, phishing). At the same time, there was significant uncertainty in regulatory awareness and attitudes toward new technologies. The SAM model is suitable for the complex, multidimensional exploration of information security awareness and provides a basis for large-scale, nationwide studies that can contribute to developing a security culture in higher education and society.