Public Perceptions of People-Centric Political Actions

A Qualitative Analysis of the Views of Hungarian Adults on Political Elite Measures

doi: 10.17646/KOME.of.30

Abstract

People-centrism is one of the fundamental elements of populism. However, qualitative research that tries to interpret a specific part of the demand side of populism – the people’s perceptions of people-centrist political actions – is scarce. In this paper, therefore, we analyse the perceptions of Hungarian adults of the people-centrist measures conducted by the domestic political elite, and scrutinise a large dataset of semi-structured interviews (n = 109) through thematic content analysis. Our results suggest that respondents deemed three important political actions by the Hungarian political elite to be ‘people-centrist’: family subsidies, immigration policies and tax reductions for younger citizens.

Keywords:

populism people-centrism Hungary tematic content analysis semi-structured interviews political perceptions

How to Cite

Tóth, T., & Liszkay, A. Public Perceptions of People-Centric Political Actions: A Qualitative Analysis of the Views of Hungarian Adults on Political Elite Measures. KOME, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.17646/KOME.of.30

References

AFP (2025, February 27). How Austria’s Far Right Is Shaping Its Own News Media Landscape. The Local. Online: https://www.thelocal.at/20250227/how-austrias-far-right-is-shaping-its-own-newsmedia-landscape

Akkerman, A., Mudde, C. & Zaslove, A. (2014). How Populist Are the People? Measuring Populist Attitudes in Voters. Comparative Political Studies, 47(9), 1324–1353. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414013512600

Albert, F. (2020). Hungary: Tax Exemption for Mothers of Four or More Children. European Commission. Online: https://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=22505&langId=en

Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Verso.

BBC (2019, February 11). Hungary Tries for Baby Boom with Tax Breaks and Loan Forgiveness. BBC. Online: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-47192612

Benczes, I. (2016). From Goulash Communism to Goulash Populism: The Unwanted Legacy of Hungarian Reform Socialism. Post-Communist Economies, 28(2), 146–166. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/14631377.2015.1124557

Bene, M. & Boda, Z. (2021). Hungary: Crisis as Usual – Populist Governance and the Pandemic. In G. Bobba & N. Hubé (Eds.), Populism and the Politicization of the Covid-19 Crisis in Europe (pp. 87–100). Palgrave Macmillan. Online: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66011-6_7

Bene, M., Ceron, A., Fenoll, V., Haßler, J., Kruschinski, S., Larsson, A. O., Magin, M., Schlosser, K. & Wurst, A.-K. (2022). Keep Them Engaged! Investigating the Effects of Self-centered Social Media Communication

Style on User Engagement in 12 European Countries. Political Communication, 39(4), 429–453. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2022.2042435

Bíró-Nagy, A. (2022). Orbán’s Political Jackpot: Migration and the Hungarian Electorate. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 48(2), 405–424. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1853905

Bobba, G. & Roncarolo, F. (2018). The Likeability of Populism on Social Media in the 2018 Italian General Election. Italian Political Science, 13(1), 51–62. Online: https://italianpoliticalscience.com/index.php/ips/article/view/32

Bonikowski, B. & Gidron, N. (2016). The Populist Style in American Politics: Presidential Campaign Discourse, 1952–1996. Social Forces, 94(4), 1593–1621. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sov120

Böröcz, J. (2012). Hungary in the European Union: ‘Catching Up’, Forever. Economic and Political Weekly, 47, 22–25.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. Online: https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Canovan, M. (1984). ‘People’, Politicians and Populism. Government and Opposition, 19(3), 312–327. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.1984.tb01048.x

Castanho Silva, B., Jungkunz, S., Helbling, M. & Littvay, L. (2020). An Empirical Comparison of Seven Populist Attitudes Scales. Political Research Quarterly, 73(2), 409–424. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912919833176

Csigó, P. & Merkovity, N. (2016). Hungary: Home of Empty Populism. In T. Aalberg, F. Esser, C. Reinemann, J. Stromback & C. De Vreese (Ed.), Populist Political Communication in Europe (pp. 299–311). Routledge. Online: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315623016

De Nadal, L. (2020). On Populism and Social Movements: From the Indignados to Podemos. Social Movement Studies, 20(1), 36–56. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2020.1722626

Ditto, P. H. & Rodriguez, C. G. (2021). Populism and the Social Psychology of Grievance. In J. P. Forgas, W. D. Crano & K. Fiedler (Eds.), The Psychology of Populism (pp. 23–41). Routledge.

Dövényi, Z. (1994). Transition and Unemployment – The Case of Hungary. GeoJournal, 32(4), 393–398. Online: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41146181

Dunai, M. (2024, August 19). Why Hungary’s Lavish Family Subsidies Failed to Spur a Baby Boom. Financial Times. Online: https://www.ft.com/content/3ea257fd-e8ef-4f05-9b89-c9a03ea72af5

Eatwell, R. & Goodwin, M. (2018). National Populism. The Revolt against Liberal Democracy. Penguin Books. Engesser, S., Ernst, N., Esser, F. & Büchel, F. (2017). Populism and Social Media: How Politicians Spread a

Fragmented Ideology. Information, Communication & Society, 20(8), 1109–1126. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2016.1207697

Erdélyi, P., Zöldi, B. & Sáling, G. (2018, March 28). The Moneyman of Bashar al-Assad and a Suspect of a Serious International Crime Participated in Hungary’s Golden Visa Program. Direkt 36. Online: https://www.direkt36.hu/en/sulyos-nemzetkozi-bunugy-gyanusitottja-es-a-sziriai-diktator-penzembere-ismagyar-papirokat-kapott-a-kotvenyprogramban/

Ernst, N., Esser, F., Blassnig, S. & Engesser, S. (2019). Favorable Opportunity Structures for Populist Communication: Comparing Different Types of Politicians and Issues in Social Media, Television and the Press. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 24(2), 165–188. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161218819430

ESS ERIC (2024). European Social Survey European Research Infrastructure (ESS ERIC) (2024) ESS11. Online: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.21338/ess11e02_0

Everett, J. A. C. (2013). The 12 Item Social and Economic Conservatism Scale (SECS). PLoS One, 8(12). Online: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082131

Hameleers, M. (2018). A Typology of Populism: Toward a Revised Theoretical Framework on the Sender Side and Receiver Side of Communication. International Journal of Communication, 12, 2171–2190. Online: https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85075652654&partnerID=40&md5=2b2f15a03889aa38b620a27e047763fe

Hameleers, M. (2021). On the Ordinary People’s Enemies: How Politicians in the United States, the United ingdom, and the Netherlands Communicate Populist Boundaries Via Twitter and the Effects on Party references. Political Science Quarterly, 136(3), 487–519. Online: https://doi.org/10.1002/polq.13235

International Trade Administration (2024, March 22). Hungary Economic Development Extra-Profit Tax Phase ut. Online: https://www.trade.gov/market-intelligence/hungary-economic-development-extra-profittax-phase-out

Jagers, J. & Walgrave, S. (2007). Populism as Political Communication Style: An Empirical Study of Political arties’ Discourse in Belgium. European Journal of Political Research, 46(3), 319–345. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2006.00690.x

Jost, J. T., Napier, J. L., Thorisdottir, H., Gosling, S. D., Palfai, T. P. & Ostafin, B. (2007). Are Needs to Manage Uncertainty and Threat Associated with Political Conservatism or Ideological Extremity? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(7), 989–1007. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301028

Kazin, M. (1995). The Populist Persuasion. An American History. Cornell University Press.

Krekó, P. (2021). Populism in Power – The Tribal Challenge. In J. P. Forgas, W. D. Crano & K. Fiedler (Eds.), The Psychology of Populism. The Tribal Challenge to Liberal Democracy (pp. 240–257). Routledge.

KSH (2020). Munkanélküliség (2004–2019) [Unemployment (2004–2019)]. Online: https://www.ksh.hu/thm/2/indi2_3_2.html

KSH (2024). Születéskor várható átlagos élettartam, átlagéletkor nem, vármegye és régió szerint [Life Expectancy at Birth, Average Age at Death, by County and Region]. Online: https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/nep/hu/nep0039.html

KSH (2025). 4 millió 679 ezer fő volt a foglalkoztatottak száma, a munkanélküliségi ráta 4,5% [The Number of Employed Persons Was 4,679,000, and the Unemployment Rate Was 4.5%]. Online: https://www.ksh.hu/gyorstajekoztatok/fem/fem2411.html

Laclau, E. (1977). Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory. Capitalism–Fascism–Populism. New Left Books.

Laclau, E. (2005a). On Populist Reason. Verso.

Laclau, E. (2005b). Populism: What’s in a Name. In F. Panizza (Ed.), Populism and the Mirror of Democracy (pp. 32–50). Verso.

Lantos, D. & Forgas, J. P. (2021). The Role of Collective Narcissism in Populist Attitudes and the Collapse of Democracy in Hungary. Journal of Theoretical Social Psychology, 5(2), 65–78. Online: https://doi.org/10.1002/jts5.80

Lin, J.-C., d’Haenens, L. & Liao, D. (2023). On Mainstream Parties’ Professionalized Use of Populist Communication on Social Networking Sites: An Analysis of Party Facebook Contents in Taiwan’s 2020 National Election. Media Asia, 50(4), 596–615. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/01296612.2023.2212502

Maier, M., Welzenbach-Vogel, I. C., Christner, C., Tillman, E. R., Zinkernagel, A. & Schmitt, M. (2023). Implicit and Explicit Populist and Anti-Immigrant Attitudes and Their Explanatory Power for Populist Radical-Right Party Support. Acta Politica, 58(3), 591–613. Online: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-022-00255-6

Miglbauer, M. (2023). Germany: Populist Conceptualisations as Drivers for Identity Formation and Expressing Support for the Alternative fur Deutschland (AfD). In V. Koller et al. (Eds.), Voices of Supporters. Populist

Parties, Social Media and the 2019 European Elections (pp. 35–57). John Benjamins Publishing Company. Online: https://doi.org/10.1075/dapsac.101.c3

Mouffe, C. (2018). For a Left Populism. Verso.

Mudde, C. (2004). The Populist Zeitgeist. Government and Opposition, 39(4), 541–563. Online: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x

Mudde, C. (2017). Populism: An Ideational Approach. In C. Rovira Kaltwasser, P. Taggart, P. O. Espejo & P. Ostiguy (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Populism (pp. 27–47). Oxford University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198803560.013.1

Ostiguy, P. (2017). Populism: A Socio-Cultural Approach. In C. Rovira Kaltwasser, P. Taggart, P. O. Espejo & P. Ostiguy (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Populism (pp. 73–97). Oxford University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198803560.013.3

Palonen, E. (2009). Political Polarisation and Populism in Contemporary Hungary. Parliamentary Affairs, 62(2), 318–334. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsn048

Palonen, E. (2018). Performing the Nation: The Janus-faced Populist Foundations of Illiberalism in Hungary. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 26(3), 308–321. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2018.1498776

Parlament.hu (s. a.). Információk a Letelepedési Magyar Államkötvényről [Information about Hungarian Government Bonds for Settlement]. Online: https://www.parlament.hu/web/gazdasagi-bizottsag/informacio-a-letelepedesi-magyar-allamkotvenyrol

Publicus Research (2025, January 31). Pártok támogatottsága – 2025 január [Party Support – January 2025]. Online: https://publicus.hu/blog/partok-tamogatottsaga-2025-januar/

Pytlas, B. (2022). Beyond Populism: The Diversity of Thin Anti-Establishment Contestation in Turbulent Times. Party Politics, 29(4), 648–660. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/13540688221080536

Scoggins, B. (2020). Identity Politics or Economics? Explaining Voter Support for Hungary’s Illiberal FIDESZ. East European Politics and Societies, 36(1), 3–28. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/0888325420954535

Taggart, P. (2000). Populism. Open University Press.

Theuwis, M.-I. (2024). Power to the People? How Participatory Budgets Affect Citizens’ Populist Attitudes. Political Studies, 73(2), 701–724. Online: https://doi.org/10.1177/00323217241273590

Tóth, T. (2020). Target the Enemy: Explicit and Implicit Populism in the Rhetoric of the Hungarian Right. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 28(3), 366–386. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2020.1757415

Tóth, T., Goyanes, M. & Demeter, M. (2024). Extend the Context! Measuring Explicit and Implicit Populism on Three Different Textual Levels. Communications, 49(2), 222–242. Online: https://doi.org/10.1515/commun-2022-0009

Tóth, T., Kékesdi-Boldog, D., Bokor, T. & Veczán, Z. (2019). “Protect Our Homeland!” Populist Communication in the 2018 Hungarian Election Campaign on Facebook. Central European Journal of Communication, 12(2), 169–186. Online: https://doi.org/10.19195/1899-5101.12.2(23).4

Tóth, T. & Lantos, D. (2024). When Crisis Unfolds: Relative Deprivation and Populist Attitudes in Hungary. Populism, 7(2), 197–225. Online: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1163/25888072-bja10066

Vas, A. (2024, December 28). Év végén is vezet a Tisza Párt, Menczer Tamás hőbörgése a fideszesek háromnegyedének sem tetszett [The Tisza Party Still Leads at the End of the Year, Tamás Menczer’s Ranting Did not Please Three-quarters of Fidesz Supporters Either]. Népszava. Online: https://nepszava.hu/3262987_magyarorszag-kozbeszed-politika-felmeres-menczer-tamas-magyar-peter-publicus-intezet

Versteegen, P. L. (2023). The Excluded Ordinary? A Theory of Populist Radical Right Supporters’ Position in Society. European Journal of Social Psychology, 53(7), 1327–1341. Online: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2977

Wettstein, M., Schulz, A., Steenbergen, M., Schemer, C., Müller, P., Wirz, D. S. & Wirth, W. (2020). Measuring Populism across Nations: Testing for Measurement Invariance of an Inventory of Populist Attitudes. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 32(2), 284–305. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edz018

Weyland, K. (2001). Clarifying a Contested Concept: Populism in the Study of Latin American Politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1–22. Online: https://doi.org/10.2307/422412

Weyland, K. (2017). Populism: A Political-Strategic Approach. In C. Rovira Kaltwasser, P. Taggart, P. Ochoa Espejo & P. Ostiguy (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Populism (pp. 48–72). Oxford University Press. Online: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198803560.013.2

Weyland, K. (2024). Democracy’s Resilience to Populism’s Threat. Countering Global Alarmism. Cambridge University Press.

Zsolt, P., Tóth, T. & Demeter, M. (2021). We Are the Ones Who Matter! Pro and Anti-Trumpists’ Attitudes in Hungary. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 30(4), 719–737. Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2021.1992362